Articles by Subject

In the field of Cultural Heritage, the technological advances of recent years have enriched and optimised the possibility of documenting and studying ancient graffiti with a wide range of low-cost and non-invasive methodologies. The most popular are digital photogrammetry SfM (Structure from Motion) and RTI (Reflectance Transformation Imaging) methodologies. The RTI is a powerful tool that, through the use of open source software, enables the documentation of data that are difficult to visualise, facilitating the recognition of traces and marks on the surface of objects. On the other hand, the SfM 3D models are increasingly replacing documentation with traditional photographs. This ‘almost excessive’ production of three-dimensional models is not often accompanied by an adequate exploitation of all their potential uses. This research aims to investigate the possibility of using a high-resolution 3D model for the implementation of virtual RTI processing, a hybrid method that combines 3D, virtual manipulation and 2D technologies in a fast and intuitive workflow suitable for the documentation of a wide range of archaeological monuments. The process sees the 3D model from the SfM survey being illuminated and photographed in a virtual dome in the open source Blender environment; therefore, the images generated are processed with RTI Builder software.

The Messapian necropolis of Monte D’Elia (used from the 6th to the 2nd cent. BC) is about 300 m S of the modern town of Alezio (Lecce, Apulia), which lays on one of the most important ancient settlements of the Salento peninsula (ancient Messapia). The site was investigated between 1981 and 1985 by the Apulian Archaeological Superintendence. In 2020, archaeological investigations have been resumed by the Department of Cultural Heritage of the University of Salento, with the participation of researchers from the Institute of Heritage Science of the National Research Council. Their research activities focused on geophysical prospecting and topographical surveys, performed thanks to the combined use of laser scanner and digital photogrammetry by drone. This contribution illustrates these research activities, which are aimed at understanding the general plan of the necropolis, through the integration of the information published in the 1980s with data from new investigations and surveys, and, more generally, at the reconstruction of its topographic organization and extension.

The ISPC-CNR is conducting research activities aimed at identifying ancient quarries that supplied the public building sites in the Athenaion of Castro, where excavations revealed dry-stone city walls made of calcarenite blocks and built in three phases between the 4th and 2nd cent. BC. The paper is focused on the large coastal quarries of Porto Miggiano, located approximately 4.5 km NE of Castro, where the extraction was carried out in function of sea transportation of the blocks. The extraction sites were documented through laser scanning and photogrammetry by a drone. In the main quarry, which covers an area of approximately 0.4 hectares, thanks to the metrological analysis of the stepped faces, four extraction areas were identified corresponding to at least five cultivation phases. The oldest and most extensive one affects the central sector of the quarry, where large blocks compatible (for dimension and macroscopic aspect) with those of the third phase of the Castro city walls, dated to the beginning of the 2nd cent. BC, were extracted.

This work arises from the collaboration between the Laboratory of Archaeological Research Methodologies and the Laboratory of Geomatics of the University of Genoa, based on a multidisciplinary approach, combining archaeological and engineering skills. Since 2016, the team of archaeologists from the University of Genoa has been working inside the Pompeii Archaeological Park in the shops of insula 14 of Regio VII, an important area within the urban context as it overlooks Via dell’Abbondanza, the most important road, and it is located in a central position, in proximity to the main public areas, such as the Forum. From the beginning of the project to the present day, the archaeology team has analysed the tabernae from a stratigraphic point of view. So, simultaneously with the excavation activity, a stratigraphic analysis of the walls and coatings was carried out, involving both the commercial establishments being excavated and the three large houses of the insula, mainly focusing on the most western one, named ‘Casa della Regina d’Inghilterra’. In September 2020, a survey campaign was carried out by geomatics engineers aiming to applying innovative survey methodologies to the architectural complex of the entire insula and, specifically, to the ‘Casa della Regina d’Inghilterra’. In particular, the survey data were collected by total station, GNSS, laser scanner, combined with terrestrial and UAV photogrammetry. This paper presents the preliminary results obtained from the geomatic survey campaign, leading to the creation of an accurate photogrammetric model which can be used as a basis for a reconstructive model, whose hypotheses will be confirmed or denied by a future structural analysis.

Previous studies conducted on the Mausoleum of Galla Placidia (between AD 432 and AD 450) have allowed us to identify the geometric rule used for the creation of its starry sky and to propose the initial considerations about the morphology of its pseudo-dome. At first sight, the turns of the stars describe regular circumferences that seem to lie on a plane, in reality their trend is a space curve resulting from a projection on the surface of the ceiling from a point centrally located, approximately at the height of the base of the windows. The geometry underlying this tracing is based on a series of cones whose angle at the vertex increases progressively, and whose materialization is possible thanks to the knowledge of the operating principle of the astronomical instrument called Triquetro and Ptolemy’s table of chords. Apparently irregular, the ceiling is set on a parallelogram and is not traceable to operations of revolution of a curve, a cross vault or a pavilion vault. The section of the mesh with a set of horizontal planes with a distance of 10 cm has generated a set of curves, all different from each other, which we perceive connected by an unusual rule, not yet investigated. An initial analysis allowed to verify that we are dealing with hyperbolas. The present work proposes to continue the investigation of these curves and to hypothesize a construction technique that can be adopted in the context of a building site.

The paper presents the first results of the Cecilia Metella Project, at the ‘Parco dell’Appia Antica’. The prominent monument is dedicated to the noble Roman woman, whose life can only be deduced from what can be read from the epigraph carved in marble. Although the monument is probably the most famous and characteristic one of the regina viarum near the city, even today the knowledge of the mausoleum – at least from the point of view of digital acquisition and analysis of the graphic documentation – appears incomplete and therefore deserves to be deepening. The new technological frontiers and their integrated use in the field of cultural heritage allow scholars to have more accurate and complete tools at their disposal. These multidisciplinary applications make it possible to acquire, in a rapid and quick way, the physical and spatial dimension of very complex and stratified archaeological contexts such as the mausoleum of Cecilia Metella. In this context, the richness of the graphic evidence of the mausoleum allowed for in-depth comparative analyses regarding the iconographical documentation and its relationship with the physical monument acquired with modern survey techniques. This study therefore aims to update the state of the art of the tomb and to define a methodological protocol for the acquisition and critical analysis of the monument.

In the Cultural Heritage domain, the potential of BIM for the built heritage is well known. However, research in Historical Building Information Modeling (HBIM) is still developing and deserves new experiments. Currently, the main objectives are the model transparency, meaning that sources and reliability of information can be linked to the model and retrieved from it, for a better interoperability and multi-disciplinary collaboration. Given the proliferation of 3D models, both informed and uninformed, and their increasing quality, there is a need to protect this heritage and provide useful uses beyond visualisation. This research not only addresses the challenge of creating an informed three-dimensional model capable of showing and documenting the evolution and transformation of the building, but also aims to achieve an output that can be used by historical experts who contribute to the creation and validation of the information apparatus. The case study is the Lazzaretto in Ancona, designed by Luigi Vanvitelli in the 18th century: it is an example of a building that shows the material culture of its time. The information gained from the primary sources, which contribute to the analysis of early modern notions of contagion, are merged with the analysis of the built environment. The proposed HBIM model is the result of interdisciplinary research between history and digital survey/representation and aims to provide the greatest transparency of knowledge in both areas. The informed model shows how the data improvement through HBIM platforms is a powerful tool to support historical-archival research and guarantees the transparency of the model.

The architectural survey for the restoration of a monument is closely linked to the conservation objectives, the research methodology, and the application of multiple direct an indirect investigation techniques for the construction of adequate geometric and informative models. In particular, the paper aims to understand and evaluate a building from its structural characteristics, developing a methodology that, from the geomatic survey, deconstructs the building itself into elements and articulates them in a HBIM platform, which integrates a set of five semantic models representing the architectural components and construction abaci. The approach applies this survey method and modelling workflow to the study of some post-Byzantine monasteries in Albania with a focus on the structural conditions of the church of S. Maria in Goranxi that presents problems of instability due to phases of expansion and over construction.

The archaeology of standing buildings and archaeological survey are the essential prerequisite to properly investigate and interpret the evolution of historical buildings. Technological advances in recent years have led to an improvement in the methodologies and tools for three-dimensional survey and data analysis. However, so far, many of these tools and methods are not fully integrated in the archaeological practice, and their potential is only partially exploited. In some cases, technology becomes the goal and not the tool to answer research questions. Often, its implementation is only limited to documentation, while the analytical contribution is ignored. The article illustrates a method already well established in the research activities of the DHiLab laboratory of the CNR ISPC, which makes use of three-dimensional survey and visualization techniques as support tools for the analysis and interpretation of the medieval fortification of San Marino, including the three Towers and the city walls. The aim is to solve interpretative issues and answer complex research questions in order to better document and analyse the urban context and to reconstruct its architectural evolution in the late medieval and post-medieval periods.

Knowledge is an essential operating procedure in any project involving direct intervention in historic buildings. Reading the stratification of natural and anthropic events on the architecture, providing the careful evaluation of its historical-constructive complexity, is a crucial step towards a full knowledge of the formal and physical characteristics of the building under analysis. The contribution, starting from the revision of the sheets used for documenting historical buildings in areas at seismic risk within the Ministry project of the ‘Atlante dei Tipi Costruttivi Murari d’Italia’, aims to illustrate, by means of a distinctive case study, that of the Pieve di Sant’Agata, how the contribution of modern surveying technology has significantly improved the recording of archaeo-seismological data both qualitatively and quantitatively. This information, once interpreted, provides a full historical, constructive and seismic understanding of the architectures, helping the process of historical knowledge of the context under study and, at the same time, the documentation, evaluation and planning of the restoration work.

Nowadays, new surveying technologies and 3D modelling techniques allow high precision reconstructions of lost historical contexts. Indeed, in recent times, modern and broader perspectives of the archaeological research push to analyze post-ancient contexts with stratigraphic methods. The case of study concerns granaries and barns erected in the Early-modern age on the ancient ruins belonging to the Complex of the Emperor Domitian (Roman Forum-Palatine). At the end of 19th century, these modern structures were demolished. Now, significant traces on the ancient architectures (3D photogrammetry survey) and the large number of iconographic sources (organized in a digital database) give the possibility to reconstruct this block of vernacular buildings, with significant implications both on the scientific documentation and on the dissemination.

The paper analyses the practise of surveying and reconstruction of the buildings in a Roman North Africa monumental centre by means of photogrammetry and three-dimensional modeling. Photogrammetry, in particular, proves to be an efficient and economic method for field analysis, although it has limitations in terms of processing time and the need for very powerful computers. Photogrammetric models, characterized by a high volumetric and colorimetric quality, constitute an ideal basis for reconstruction by means of 3D modeling, particularly in the case of research, such as this one, related to the Archaeology of Construction.

The Forum built in Rome by Trajan is a match of his political and military virtues: the defeated populations materialize with statues and high-reliefs in precious marble and are therefore an integral part of the marble triumph of the emperor and the Roman army. The statues of the Dacians are distributed on the most visible architectural parts of the complex, and they have different size, as well as different back surface treatment, depending on their location. In order to reconstruct the architectural composition together with the sculptural apparatus, a complete metrological analysis of the sculptures has been undertaken, alongside the examination of the material features of Daci statues (clothing, surface treatment) and of data yielded by archives and excavations that took place in the past centuries and recently in the 21st century. The work has been based on a method measuring bi-dimensional photographic shaped-set of all the Daci dispersed in several art collections, starting from the idea of working with a low-cost method without specific expensive software. The workflow combines bi-dimensional images, scaled to 1:1 reference, imported in AutoCAD in order to produce a single .dwg file, with good resolution but easy-to-manage during the data processing. Some interesting, albeit preliminary, goals have been achieved. In the first place, a measured catalogue of all the Dacian statues dispersed in the world has been quickly built. It was therefore possible to start the reconstruction, at least virtual, of the sculptural context of Trajan’s forum. Regarding the size and archaeological aspect of the sculptures, three dimensional series of Dacians have been grouped, which contributed, on the one hand, to confirm the results of previous studies, and on the other to advance the knowledge with new data.

In the last couple of years, as part of the archaeological project ‘Uomini e Cose a Vignale’ several tests were conducted, focused on fast and effective methods for the graphic and photographic documentation of the archaeological excavation. This paper presents three case studies, which have produced promising results. All of these were conceived and carried on in order to be based on cost-effective and straightforward procedures, which can be further experimented by other research groups. The final outputs are both sufficiently precise and adequate for the online sharing. The first case study focuses on developing an effective pipeline, based on UAV and 3D modeling, and easy enough to allow every member of the excavation team to carry on autonomously the documentation of its excavation area. The second case study has been aimed at 3D modeling of archival data in order to increase their informational potential. The third case study consisted in the elaboration of a high-definition photoplan of a wide (9x3 m) late antique mosaic. The proposed case studies show that the use of sustainable and low-cost procedures and tools leads to the production of graphic and photographic documentation maintaining good quality standards and suitable for communication purposes.

For the first time in the history of Venetian archaeology, this paper presents the innovative potential of the application of a non-invasive digital technique for the extensive measurement of reused sculpture (spolia) preserved in Venice and its lagoon, both in architectural contexts and as freestanding structural elements. The sample measurements were carried out to get precise digital representations of archaeologically and epigraphically meaningful items, such as ancient columns, capitals or inscriptions, which are reused in the facades of palaces on the Grand Canal, as well as inside and outside Venetian churches and bell-towers. In most cases, measurements were taken for the first time; it was also possible to test the functions of the device over considerable distances, even greater than 50 m, thus obtaining the measurement of artefacts that are difficult to access. Finally, the provision of a very detailed dataset made it possible to set up a broader, albeit still embryonic, study of the proportions of ancient artefacts, especially inscriptions.

While the branch of Classical studies on Greek figured pottery focused for decades on the development of Beazley’s lifework (i.e. attributions of Greek vases to anonymous painters), the study of the potter’s work, the organization of workshops, their networks and relative chronology (although sporadically studied by several scholars, e.g. Haspels, Bloesh, Mackay, Jubier-Galinier) remained broadly neglected and were never systematically analysed. Yet, Beazley was perfectly aware of the need to restore the potter and his/her wheel to the centre of the workshop. In this paper, we first outline the history of the research on the shapes of Greek vases and their attributions to anonymous potters, showing why this work is fundamental to understand the organization of potters’ quarters (in Greece and elsewhere) and describing the most recent methodologies which we developed in this regard. In the second part, we build on case studies to move past stylistic attribution in order to show how the study of vase shapes in general can help archaeologists understand broader questions like the mechanisms of intercultural exchanges in the ancient Mediterranean.

Imaging systems are the basic tools of the trade for art historians, conservators, and archaeologists, when they are called to document the results of their work. However, photo cameras and imaging systems are also powerful research tools. These systems, in fact, are inherently portable and give the possibility of acquiring high-resolution, spectrally resolved digital images that can be elaborated exploiting the most advanced algorithms of information science. In this contribution, we will outline the many possibilities opened by the available instrumentation and techniques, to suggest the use of image analysis as the first step of the diagnostic process in Cultural Heritage conservation and study.

The piazza Pozzo Dorico substructures in Cori (the ancient Cora, a Latin city at the north-western slopes of the Lepini Mountains) represent a remarkable example of Roman public architecture of the Late Republican period. They are situated at the bottom of a secular and imposing terracing system, distributed on at least three levels. This paper aims at identifying the modular schemes, geometric shapes and proportions governing the layout plan of this monumental infrastructure, based on recent topographic surveys and new metrological considerations. Finally, it will investigate the relationship between the layout of the archaeological complex (apparently quite simple) and its function (still largely unknown), in order to attempt to identify the several formal and functional components that played a decisive role in the development of the original project.

The paper addresses the theme of photomodelling techniques supporting archaeological survey and of the role played by the contemporary archaeologist dealing with computing and information technology. In particular, photomodelling, being a simple and economical technique, for years has gained ground in the archaeological survey as an efficient instrument to respond to the needs for documentation, study, and communication, which are inherent to digitization. Likewise, in the enhancement of perceptive aspects and in computation automatisms, which are at the basis of the models' genesis, some pitfalls can be hidden that may lead to underestimate the centrality of interpretation. The critical analysis proposed aims at underlying the contribution of digital techniques, by analysing their reliability and their possible application to the traditional design. The paper compares some examples of archaeological data survey conducted in the Umbria region, in the last fifty years, from the point of view of experts involved in representation studies, and tries to capture the peculiarities that are still valid in the current transformation of graphic representation tools.

The excavation of the medieval city of Leopoli-Cencelle (Tarquinia, VT) has reached its 24th campaign. The graphic documentation produced over this period faithfully reflects how Information Technologies and instruments for data acquisition have developed in the course of about 20 years. In the case of Leopoli-Cencelle, the main challenge was to produce a modern system of managing and using data and to subsume all the paper elements into one functional and searchable digital format.

RTI is a photographic method that allows to enhance any unevenness on the surface ofan object. In archaeology, the RTI method is used for various purposes, for instance, to study superficial markings on ceramic artefacts and to understand their possible causes (natural unevenness of the materials, manufacturing techniques, intended use). This article describes a research that has been conducted thanks to the RTI method on some ceramic artefacts dating back to the Bronze Age, from the village located in Via Ordiere, in Solarolo (RA). The research aims to test the limits of use of this instrument and its actual potential to give information on certain aspects of the production process of a ceramic artefact, such as the tools used to refine the surface (smoothing or polishing). Moreover, the RTI images have been tested as auxiliary tool for archaeological design of lithic artefacts from the same sites (arrowheads). The first part of the article is dedicated to the methodological aspects of the research: the processing chain, the tools and the time needed to complete each phase of the work. In the second part, the results of the research and the possible developments are discussed. The points of strength and the limits of this method are both summarised in the last section of the article.

This paper addresses the different methods of recording prehistoric rock art, with specific focus on the northern Italian area (Valle Camonica, UNESCO Site n. 94), and presents a new integrated way of recording and tracing engravings. This method combines different sources of data, both traditional, as an ‘enhanced’ way of rubbing, and technological. The active use of Structure from Motion photogrammetry and the subsequent mesh manipulation, as well as the implementation of digital macrophotography with artificial oblique lighting, are among the methods used for the recognition of the correct features of the carvings, while the tracing of the engraved figures, executed in vector graphics, is structured on layers. Combining the benefits of the digitally enhanced visibility of the figures with the precision and versatility of digital vector drawing, this method produces state of the art tracings of rock art, for a better comprehension of the symbols carved on the stone. All steps of this method are demonstratedusing, as a selected case study, the unpublished monolith n. 23 from the Copper Age Sanctuary of Ossimo, Pat (BS) in Valle Camonica, Northern Italy.

The paper presents a series of methodological reflections on the following themes: survey, restitution, analysis and communication. The objective of the research was the critical reading of two of the most famous monuments in Ravenna and UNESCO heritage sites: the Mausoleum of Theodoric (ca. 520 AD) and the Mausoleum of Galla Placidia (before 450 AD). From advanced and integrated survey data, 2D graphs and 3D models were elaborated for hypothesis testing and for the multimedia communication of the scientific contents identified during the work. This second topic of the paper is part of the experiments conducted by the research group on new modes of multimedia communication, interactive and not, based on virtual models as an edutainment tool for enjoying monuments and masterpieces of cultural importance.

This paper aims to highlight the importance of 3D printing to support Cultural Heritage and related activities. We will demonstrate the advantages that a conscious employment of techniques and methods, together with the right expertise, could offer to an exhibition. We will detail the steps we took to produce a 1:1 copy of a medieval sphinx for the exhibition Echoes of Egypt: Conjuring the Land of the Pharaohs which took place at the Yale Peabody Museum of Natural History (USA). This paper highlights the project’s workflow, from the digital 3D scan, data processing, 3D printing, to the artistic finishing to prepare the object for display.

For its unique features and size, the Hadrian’s Villa site has always been the object of studies and investigations. Italian and foreign institutions, as well as research organizations, are working together with the common purpose of understanding and protecting the universally recognized ensemble of buildings and works of art, belonging to the World Heritage List since 1999. Within this interdisciplinary framework, over the past decade, new technologies for digital documentation in the field of cultural heritage have gained more importance with respect to the traditional field of architectural/archaeological surveying. Through expeditious surveying (with no physical contact with the object and different measurement resolutions) several 3D reality-based models were created in the last years, with special regards to the Villa’s pavilions characterized by more complex and daring shapes. The aim was a better understanding of specific problems in those cases where archaeological investigation methods may take advantage of a correct and complete digital surveying of elevations in general and in particular of vaulted spaces, intrados and extrados surfaces. 3D digital models of complex roofing, as shown in the case study of the Small Baths, provide additional advantages concerning the use of finite elements analysis (FEA). Both the digital models (current state of conservation and reconstruction hypothesis) underwent to an accurate stress analysis that enables further achievements for site conservation and management and for ancient constructive and designing techniques.

Drawing is a fundamental activity in all archaeological praxis. The emergence and spread of the Massive Data Acquisition Systems (MDAS) have completely revolutionized this documentation area, so that someone has announced his death. Not surprisingly the MDAS have radically changed the concept that we have about archaeological drawing. But this change has been made without planning or without a discussion of what should be his objectives. In this article we try to explain the problems and advantages of using MDAS and above all to reflect on what role they can play in archaeology in order to make them really useful and effective.

The recent development of camera sensors, the manufacturing of lenses and the accurate algorithms of photogrammetric software allow today to acquire point clouds similar to those generated from a laser scanner. The results are similar: numerical models that contain a variety of information, useful for the final data synthesis. Thanks to the automatic points recognition of photogrammetric algorithms, it is now possible to revise part of digital data previously acquired and use them in new computing strategies. Emblematic is the example of the crusader castle of Wu'Ayra, an important medieval fortress located in the Petra valley in Jordan. Since 2000, in collaboration with the international mission of the University of Florence, a number of surveys aimed at detecting the whole monumental area, the archaeological site, the settlement and the defensive system of the castle were performed by the research team of the Italian ITABC-CNR. Different survey techniques were used during the acquisition step, in order to enhance the main information of the archaeological site and the geomorphology of an extended area particularly complex to be defined. In these 15 years, the team tested several techniques. Thanks to recent software, the team has revised old data, created a defined numerical model of Wu'Ayra, updated and improved the documentation. The Authors illustrate the results of these elaborations and compare them with the other systems used, highlighting the differences and updating the graphic documentation of an important site in the history of the Petra valley. Furthermore, latest data of the architectural structures of the formworks acquired with laser scanner will be presented.

This paper illustrates the experiment of image-based modelling conducted on the site of Calicantone (RG) by the international course in Archaeology of the Dipartimento di Scienze Umanistiche of the University of Catania, in collaboration with the Dept. of Engineering and Architecture of the same University and the Soprintendenza of Ragusa. The aim of the research was to experiment and verify a single process of digital acquisition, elaboration and communication, and to investigate the potential of shifting from 3D to 2D for the creation of metrically and geometrically reliable orthophotos (so called new photogrammetry). In particular, this kind of application has not been widely used by the archaeological teams working in Sicily, especially when the Computer Vision is not aimed at the reconstruction or the dissemination of the results. The site of Calicantone represented an ideal context for a multiple experimentation of image-based modelling. Indeed, the construction of a methodology of survey of the site involved a global understanding of a complex context, made by different kinds of evidence: built architecture (walls), negative architecture (rock cut tombs), horizontal restitution of the trenches vs vertical restitution of the slopes of the hill hosting the tombs. From the point of view of the archaeological narrative, the exceptional impact of the landscape, the necessity of an enhancement and the limited visibility of some of the archaeological evidence encouraged the acquisition of the data through passive detectors, in order to support the traditional 3D reconstruction of the landscape.

The domus de janas are the typical rock-cut tombs of Sardinian Late Prehistory. Many of them are decorated. Motifs are made with different techniques: painting, sculpture and incision. Architectural elements, busts, cattle and sheep, and horn-shaped features are represented. Painting is generally used to decorate the ceilings, the jambs of doors, walls and false doors. The difficulty of detecting traces of paint complicates the identification of the ancient use of this decorative technique. The aim of this work is to describe the great utility of the plugin DStretch, extension of the ImageJ software, as a method of computer analysis and processing of multispectral images on the paint traces at the sides of the Perdonighéddu domus de janas (Sorgono, NU, Sardinia, Italy). This system opens up new perspectives in the study of the paintings found in the domus de janas, by allowing a crisper image of the decoration, through an alteration of digital photography chromatic scale. The analysis of the images of this grave reveals the presence of traces of painting that decorate the sides of the entrance by forming two doorposts supporting the lintel.

The improvement of new active optical sensors has revolutionized the methods for documenting cultural heritage. The conservation and appreciation of our cultural legacy re¬quire an extensive documentation both in terms of shape, color and geometry as well as the more traditional art-historical features. The incessant development of scientific research today provides new possibilities and tools which are essential to know and use in a responsible and scientific way. In the field of archaeology, the automatic 3D survey is now recognized as an added value compared to traditional practices and the active contribution that this technology can provide to the interpretative phase, cataloguing and promotion of archaeological assets, even through the web, is becoming increasingly clear. On the other hand, even considering the speed of the procedure and the accuracy of measurement, there have been calls for reflection on the role that laser scanning can play in the field of archaeology; this role needs to be clarified and consolidated by conducting new studies and experiments, such as the one presented here that concerns the Church of Santa Croce in Bergamo, a small octagonal Romanesque chapel built in the first half of the 11th century.

Laser scanner and digital photogrammetric systems (photo scanning) must be considered at present two of the main techniques used for archaeological and architectural surveying. The integration of both 3D scanning systems allowed us to improve the scientific knowledge, the management, the use and the safeguarding of Cultural Heritage. The aim of this article is to identify analogies and differences between the two surveying techniques applied to different archaeological contexts. Starting from a general introduction to the concept of measurement and the management of the data acquired from different techniques of surveying, the article focuses on the laser scanner applications with particular attention on the intrinsic properties of the instrument, the problems of measurement and the methodology used during the survey. The second part is focused on the digital photogrammetry applied on a particular archaeological context. Digital photogrammetry was developed and experimented in order to acquire territorial data quickly. The optimization of the working speed, while maintaining accuracy of data, means cost savings and an optimal use of funds. Our workgroup decided to transfer that methodology to the archaeological excavations of Rome Metro Line C in collaboration with some public institutions and private companies. The final results have produced 2D and 3D graphic documentations of all the archaeological area up to highly-accurate ortho-recti ??ed images. Point clouds allowed us to simultaneously view a general 3D model of all open archaeological areas, providing an opportunity for observation and an analysis not possible by other means. Each area can be studied together with the others in a global view of the excavation. Every stratigraphic unit can be displayed in the same area and switched on in the same way as a layer.

ArchaeoSection is a software for drawing archaeological sections. Its goal is to automatically rotate section points measured with total station and to insert them in a geodatabase and GIS: this software is supposed to be a third way between traditional techniques and the most advanced digital systems of section record. This paper presents the technical properties of ArchaeoSection, how it works, its usage for different types of section and the advantages of a geodatabase-GIS management of archaeological sections. ArchaeoSection is also an example of the potential of FLOSS, that allows archaeologists without programming experience to build their work tools on their own, like an ancient craftsman.

The article presents the results obtained from the application of two different kinds of software, Photoplan (Kubit) and Image Master (Topcon), to the photographic rectification used as a graphic support methodology for the technological and building analysis of the Provincial Forum of Tarraco. The study of archaeological structures in a modern urban context often imposes limitations and obstacles of a different nature (space, time, financial resources, etc.). In order to overcome such drawbacks, photographic rectification can be used for the bi-dimensional documentation of archaeological structures, as a tool widely affirmed and accepted in a scientific context. Presently there are several different kinds of software available on the market, so that it is difficult to make a choice among the wide range of possibilities. Nonetheless, the advantages and disadvantages of these kinds of software depend mainly on the specific aims and the particular work context. Hence, the choice of Photoplan or Image Master was based mainly on the evaluation of their respective flexibility and speed in both data collection and data processing, considering the size and the location of the structure of interest. For our purposes, the best solution was to alternate the two kinds of software, as they turned out to be quite complementary.

Simple photogrammetric data capture methods and equipment are able to measure accurate dense point clouds and detailed high geometric quality Digital Surface Models (DSMs) can be generated out of them. These products are frequently applied to the recording of rock art. However, their potential is not just limited to documentation and their use can be extended to perform analytic tasks. This paper describes the authors’ first experiments in the morphometric analysis of an engraved surface (an epigraph), based on a DSM generated from photogrammetric data. Slope and curvature models were derived from this DSM and used to identify and extract some structural features of the carvings, much in the same way as topographic landscape features can be identified on a terrain DEM.

The purpose of this paper is to describe methods of documentation of different archaeological contexts. The first part illustrates some solutions for the integration of tablet PC within the current standards of archaeological documentation. The second part describes several techniques of photogrammetric survey for the documentation of burials, wall stratigraphy and structural elements. With the support of photo-modelling and stereophotogrammetry it is possible to record perimeter and surface of each Stratigraphic Unit in a three-dimensional space also obtaining isomorphic reproductions of the detected object. In conclusion, the last part of the article discusses the first results of an experiment which is still in progress: the 3D PDF for publication of the archaeological record.

By examining the potential offered by the digital survey, the article aims at encourag¬ing archaeologists to undertake a more rational approach towards three-dimensional data acquisition and management. Data was derived from excavations at Aveia (AQ - Italy) and Seglamen (Ethiopia). The 3D data-capture was achieved with the laser scanner and structure from motion techniques that make it possible to obtain a point cloud of an object from a sequence of photographic images, which are neither ordered nor calibrated. The conclusions reflect the role of digital technologies in the field of stratigraphic survey. Independence from scale and the ability to extract profiles and contours of stratigraphic units are factors of great importance for a virtual reconstruction of archaeological excavations.

Since 2005 the Aswan-Kom Ombo Archaeological Project (AKAP), managed by Yale and Bologna Universities, has investigated a number of selected areas in the region between Aswan and Kom Ombo. Many of the rock art sites identified within the concession areas are under threat, due to the impact of modern human activities. Three-dimensional technologies, such as digital surveying, laser scanning and photogrammetry, were used for the first time in the Egyptian Nile Valley in order to obtain a highly detailed image of the rock art and its environmental setting. The aim of the project is to improve data recording and analysis while saving economic resources and reducing time in the fieldwork.

The aim of this paper is to present the experience of a photogrammetric survey started in May 2009 to record the current state of some religious buildings involved in the earthquake of April 6th which affected L’Aquila and its municipalities. This experience gave us the opportunity to evaluate and verify a solution for a metric survey of buildings, which is based on photography applied in a post-earthquake scenario. An archaeological recording can become part of a wider process of knowledge and reconstruction, in which there is interaction between several agents (engineers, architects, archaeologists, etc.); in this way the approach to the survey problems was discussed taking into account specific needs. The paper illustrates the process of analysis and synthesis that led to the representation of architectural and archaeological data, and especially attempts to define, through specific case studies, the targeted use of the photogrammetric solution.

Architectural structures are 3D volumes and their features, which are recognized in the field through archaeological investigation (stratigraphic, metric and formal data), are distributed within the three-dimensions. Stratigraphic wall analysis normally needs front elevations or photo-mosaic images to draw the boundaries between each Stratigraphic Unit (SU). The Stratigraphic 3D component is not recorded because it is not taken into account by these supporting documents. With the support of photo-modelling and stereophotogrammetry, instead, it is possible to record the perimeter and volume of each SU in 3D space and also obtain isomorphic reproductions of the detected object. These copies are high quality photo-textured models that provide a complete overview of architectural volumes and the close dimensional framework (length, depth and width) of mouldings and decorative architectural elements. Moreover, the coordinates of any point can be extracted from these models in order to obtain traditional charts (maps, sections, elevations and axonometric views, useful to understand the process of installation of building elements). The purpose of this paper is to describe different techniques capable of acquiring 3D data of wall stratigraphy in order to define new methods of documentation based on the use of photo-modelling and stereophotogrammetry. The data used for this research refer to excavated sites or high-preserved fabrics of different ages and functions such as the late medieval bell-tower of the basilica of San Severo (Classe, Ravenna), the modern tower of Monte Erno (FC) and the church of San Bartolomeo in Tipano (FC). Starting with these cases, in this article we explore some of the technical aspects of data processing like speed, measurement accuracy, information content and equipment cost.

Many pioneering imaging techniques have been used at the C2RMF in order to acquire artworks in digital form. These techniques are considered non-destructive and non-invasive analyses and they offer extensive and detailed information about works of art and include multispectral imaging, panoramic acquisition of objects, 3D laser scanning of painted surfaces, photogrammetry and 3D modeling. These techniques are widely used in the restoration and conservation world and are considered valuable tools that allow us to perform regular and accurate monitoring of works of art, in order to measure their state of conservation and compare them with previous analyses. Unfortunately, the level of accuracy in acquiring information produces huge quantities of data, which need to be visualized and disseminated in several different ways. The resulting images must also be accessible to various partners around the world via the Internet, but the data needs to be protected and, because of the vast quantity involved, requires careful handling and management. This paper describes several new developments that have been made at the C2RMF in order to make extremely high-resolution images available on-line using the IIP protocol. In this paper we are presenting a case study based on the use, the manipulation and the sharing of high-resolution colorimetric images among members of the museum research community. The resulting system is a lightweight client-server architecture that efficiently streams image data to the client, allowing the user to quickly view very large images even over a slow Internet connection. These developments have been released as open source software in the IIPImage project.

The author illustrates the positive and negative features of the virtual museum, and the role of visual and new interactive technologies in the cognitive processes. He then defines the concept of the virtual museum as the communicative projection of the real museum. According to this definition, the virtual museum is not a simple copy of the real museum; in fact, the radical re-organization related to the task of communication, also from the point of view of the display structure of the virtual museum, creates the possibility of exploiting powerful and effective visual means, which is the strong point of virtual construction.

In this paper the authors present the approach in the study and reconstruction of archaeological landscapes that has characterized their work carried out at CINECA Supercomputing Center of Bologna, in the Visualization lab (VISIT lab), and in the Institute of Technologies Applied to Cultural Heritage of CNR (CNR-ITABC). The digital pipeline defined in these years of work has lead to the reconstruction of actual landscape (and archaeological landscape is part of our contemporaneity), past landscape, and ecosystems. The presented methodological model is a relational model that uses both bottom-up (data processing from fieldwork with integrated technologies) and top-down (landscape reconstruction through conceptual models, comparative analysis and mental maps) approaches. Landscape virtual museums can be built as ecosystems made of models and dynamic behaviors, where data can be read in a transparent way because of their association with a visible ontology. The proposed digital protocol is defined by procedures, tools (hardware and software), exchangeable data/formats and technologies such as GIS, OpenGL graphic libraries, terrain generators, Open Source software. It integrates 2D spaces and 3D, raster and vector, grid and polygonal models, text and multimedia, with the goal of offering a real time access to cultural and environmental information through off-line and on-line Virtual Reality applications and, in the future, virtual communities that could share experiences in and of the same spatial 3D landscape-mindscape.

The author describes the origin of “Iraq Project: the Virtual Museum of Baghdad”, and discusses two projects which have been approved by the Ministry of Foreign Affairs (MAE). As part of the humanitarian mission of stabilization and reconstruction in Iraq, they intended to contribute to the funding of activities and initiatives aimed at the reconstruction and safeguarding as well as the enhancement of the Iraqi cultural heritage. A few days after the entry of the US army into Baghdad, the looting and partial destruction of the exhibits were gradually removed to the storerooms that were sealed in 2004. Only the exhibits which were impossible to move remained in their original places. Beginning with the assumption that very few people in the world have been fortunate enough to visit the Iraq Museum and that the Museum will probably be closed for a long time, we felt that it was necessary to reconstruct it virtually so that the visitor could enter, wander through and observe the most important exhibits kept there. At the same time, the Virtual Museum makes it possible to explore and get to know the ancient civilizations and the geographical context in which these arose. The Virtual Museum should facilitate the utilization and understanding of the cultural, historic and scientific artifacts of the Museum without limits of space and time. An analytical presentation is provided that is extremely rich in content, flexible and lends itself to personalization by the user. It offers in addition the advantage of a presentation made possible by instruments for the simplification and narration required for a public of non-specialists.

This paper deals with the results of an experiment that was conducted as part of the CNR Project entitled Iraq Virtual Museum, the goal of which is the construction of a Virtual Museum that will allow the public to enjoy the main archaeological treasures of the ancient civilizations that flourished in the territory of modern-day Iraq. The work was aimed at the contextualization of the ancient objects in the territory of origin. This result was achieved by recourse to image-based technologies and remote sensing. In the exemplary case of the city of Ur, the process of contextualization began with the modelling of the golden helmet of king Meskalamdug, and continued with the reconstruction of the tomb in which it had originally been placed, together with the rest of the funerary objects. This tomb was then contextualized within the Royal Cemetery and the urban layout of Ur. High resolution satellite images made it possible to observe and document the archaeological area as it is today, for a virtual visit and in preparation for a potential real visit in the future. Furthermore, research activities have made it possible to acquire new knowledge of the objects, the monuments, the urban layout and the historical landscape.

This paper outlines some results which have come out from the analysis of the Cultural Heritage domain, an analysis supported by the Virtual Museum of Naples project ReMuNa and SIABeC; both of these initiatives have the objective of promoting the artistic cultural inheritance of Naples. In this context, a domain ontology was developed which allows a more articulated use of the cultural heritage data available and, as it faces the crucial theme of re-contextualization, it also allows to define formal historical reconstructions. In this paper, the “upper “ontology TopLevelReMuNa, i.e. the topmost classes and properties hierarchies embodied in ReMuNaICCD v2.0, is described. According to the authors, the most remarkable features of TopLevelReMuNa are illustrated by the three ontology patterns that are reported here.

The advances of digital technology to the museum world have led to the development of computational tools for the classification of information as well as consultation of semantically correlated documents. The work presented here consists in an experiment, organizing the textual descriptions relative to iconographic works by means of SOM (Self-Organizing Maps), which represent the most common algorithm of artificial neural networks in the category of non-supervised learning, i.e. without the control and contribution of knowledge on the part of the human operator. The system produces a bi-dimensional map in which the words, represented graphically by means of semantically correlated nodes, are contiguous and form agglomerates. Therefore, the visit to a virtual museum containing works located in different sites can take place following pathways which are “conceptually-oriented”, independent of the learner’s cultural background.

The paper describes a multimodal application, based on haptic/acoustic/visual interaction. A system of this kind offers two very interesting possibilities: it can be used to permit access and comprehension of cultural heritage by visually impaired people, for whom touch and hearing represent the main channels for interaction with the real world and it can also enhance the experience of cultural heritage by sighted people, making it possible to use the sense of touch, which is often forbidden in museum situations. The system not only allows the experience of touching objects which, on account of their location, dimensions, and vulnerability cannot be offered for direct haptic contact, but, in addition, it makes it possible to experience a much more flexible and powerful interaction in complex situations. In fact, virtual models can change in a very dynamic and flexible way to match the needs of the specific user and to help his/her exploration and cognitive process. The system moves the haptic experience into the virtual world where the digital potentials can be used to make communication of the cultural content of each object more effective. Multimodal interaction allows visually impaired people to access cultural heritage involving large spatial information content. The system makes it possible to interact with haptic/acoustic active objects and to select the information that must be shown on the basis of user requirements. Several tests, involving people with different types and levels of visual disabilities, were conducted. They showed that haptic/acoustic interaction and modular representation of information really do help blind people to cope with the serious and challenging task of acquiring and managing spatial data.

The project of incorporation and preliminary evaluation of a processing system for the description of pottery forms by means of the use of OMR and ICR devices is illustrated. This project, which has been implemented by the Laboratorio de Arqueoloxía of the Universidade de Vigo (Grupo de Investigación “Arqueoloxía Aplicada”), simplifies and speeds the recording of archaeological finds. The implementation of this type of system, applied in the analysis of finds coming from the Roman villa of Toralla, implies significant reduction in processing time of archaeological materials with the consequent advantages on the general process of investigation.

A project for a Demotic Inscriptions on Ostraka Database is being carried out in collaboration between ILC/CNR (Pisa), the Department of Electronic Engineering (Calabria University) and the Department of the Ancient World History (Egyptological section, Pisa University). The aim of the project is to analyse the digital colour images of demotic texts on ostraka (Medinet Madi, in Fayyum region) with the aid of computational tools. The module described in the paper is a neural component able to learn the graphical features of each demotic symbol, which has been previously segmented in the images thanks to a semiautomatic procedure. A specific neural network tries to recognize the text written in the images linking the symbols segmented within the ostraka images database to the correspondent symbols available on a virtual keyboard. The graphical interface is particularly useful for teaching and research activities on this type of archaeological documentation.

In recent years, the use of DGPS (Digital Ground Positioning System) satellite antennas has become widespread within the framework of the historical-topographic research. They give us the possibility of geo-referencing, in a simple manner, different objects spread across the territory, and permit the delimitation and geometrical survey of specific areas rendered in the shape of polygons. In the present project, new case-studies, aimed at defining new procedures for the geo-referencing of territorial elements, are produced. In these case-studies the use of DGPS, employed in a new and integrated way with other modern topographical instruments, has enabled us to survey complex structures and to produce detailed morphological studies of the sites. The archaeological sites that have been examined show great differences. Firstly, in their geomorphologic characteristics, the historical period, the cultural environment and related problems and secondly, for the different scale of the research, procedures and level of investigation of the archaeological research.

This article tells the history of the interaction between a scientific program and the use of digital technologies for handling and distributing archaeological information. We try to show, using an anthropological and epistemological approach, how archaeological work is modified by the introduction of digital technologies and the change in dynamics that this introduction causes to our scientific program. We also analyse the theoretical-ideological formation and the ethical problems arising from this interaction.

The group of bronze sheets with repoussé decoration, kept in the Ny Carlsberg Glyptotek and coming from the princely burial in Tomb XI at the Colle del Forno necropolis, has been identified as the decoration of a chariot and the magnificent upholstery from horse trappings. This group represents a collection of extraordinary interest regarding figurative culture in the Tiber river area in the Late Orientalizing Period, an identification proven by a second group of objects kept in the same museum. The decorative repertory represents one of the most refined expressions of the artistic style called “Orientalizzante fiorito”, which is best known from the decoration of bucchero pottery, carved ivories and ostrich eggs. Computer graphic techniques have been used for the documentation and study of this repertory, using as a base the excellent photographic documentation provided by the Glyptotek. This methodology, experimented through the use of a graphical workstation at the Istituto per l’Archeologia Etrusco-Italica, provides the opportunity to create a graphical documentation very close to the original technical and graphical cipher and qualifies itself as a very important tool for reading elements regarding the incision technique. However, close collaboration between the specialist and the archaeologist is essential in order to validate this as a useful scientific method of documentation.

In this article the authors present a method for obtaining a line-art representation of a mural painting using colour photography. First, the information concerning colour components was separated and then the contours of graphic representations were extracted. The result is an exact copy of the original and this level of precision makes it an important solution to the problem of registering and recording mural paintings. This method has been shown to be a useful solution for the documentation of the state of conservation of paintings, as well as a means for keeping track of restoration work; furthermore, it provides a fundamental method for analysing paint compositions. The approach was developed bearing in mind the possibility of use by non-specialist computer users: no programming knowledge is assumed and the use of shareware software was always preferred.

This paper describes a system for real-time field support to archaeological excavations, and for interaction with remote researchers, via the Internet. To this aim, a prototype system has already been field tested at the site of Poliochni in Greece. The system is composed of a wireless LAN, including one (two or more in the future) mobile unit (Telxon PTC), and a wired LAN, with at least one PC or Workstation running Windows NT and Lotus Notes Domino for groupware activities. The two LANs are connected by means of an Access Point Aironet 630 (Radio-hub). The system provides a communication link with remote workstations installed in Universities or Museums where researchers who are interested in cooperating in real-time with field operators can work. Archaeologists can use the mobile units to draw finds on the screen using a magnetic pen, to write related textual information and to send these sketches or digital snapshots to the fixed host by using suitable interfaces (serial, parallel, PCMCIA, and so on).

Maintenance and restoration activity of archaeological structures are often recorded only on paper and not according to standardised procedures. For this reason a large amount of information produced daily can be neither referred to or elaborated. The geographical location of building materials and deterioration patterns, the relations between decay and environmental data, quantitative information on restoration work, products and techniques, are some of the types of information normally generated in the conservation sector which at present are not being used to improve the quality of the restoration activity or to accomplish the institutional task of strategic programming. The main purpose of this research project was to devise a qualitative and quantitative method to evaluate the behaviour over time of products used for the protection and restoration of architectural surfaces, and to establish a single criterion for certifying their performances. Only after the procedures used to record the different kinds of data (geometrical survey, building materials, deterioration patterns etc.) have been standardised will it be possible to correlate and elaborate them, exchange information through a system of local and remote networks, and produce synthesis outlines. The proposal has been tested on the monumental complex of Khor Rori in the Sultanate of Oman. The fortified city, built at about the end of the first century BC, for the protection of a natural harbour, was located on the main maritime route that crossed the Indian Ocean, the Red Sea and the Nile, connecting Rome and the Mediterranean Basin to India (the Frankincense road). The study and the restoration of Khor Rori, chosen as a “pilot project” by the Italian Ministry of Foreign Affairs and financed by public organisations in Italy and Oman, will help to clarify the historical, commercial, and cultural relations between the Mediterranean and the Southern Arabian peninsula. This study has been conducted with the support of Siatel S.n.C. of Perugia and the Studio Menci of Arezzo.

The present technique of digital image processing follows the concept of analytical rectification, allowing for the elimination of the geometric distortions from the original image and the retrieval of the correct dimensional information. The image can be produced in various ways: most often, sampling is done with a scanner, but recently a new method is becoming more frequently used, that is the acquisition of digital images directly on ground by means of digital cameras with a CCD image sensor. The processing software is now offered by various producers of photogrammetric equipment, which allows us to carry out surveys of manufactured flat items, starting from a single image, to create a vector graphics superimposed in CAD environment.

This paper deals with the advantages of simple photogrammetry methods used in the documentation of archaeological excavations. The proposed method is based on low altitude vertical pictures, a Least Square Adjustment calculation software program and a common CAD software. Description of the method and different applications are also included.

Archaeology contains a strange contradiction in itself. It is compelled to destroy all that emerges from the past in order to know and keep memory of it. It removes from its original position findings brought to light during digging. Ruins, graves, everyday objects are documented, photographed, catalogued and carried away. Then, they are no longer replaced in their former position save exceptional cases. This procedure emphasises the importance of graphic and photographic documentation of archaeological sciences. From this perspective, the Apulian Archaeological office has recently carried out experiments in the application of informatics to survey and graphical documentation in some excavations made in the province of Bari. This experience has helped to define a set of methodologies to allow CAD programmes to be used even by inexperienced operators. Thanks to these methodologies complex situations like graves, ruins and sections have been easily documented with great precision and in a short time.

Data coming from necropolis excavations constitute the base of an information programme, which permits the integration between a descriptive database and a computer graphics programme. Each grave has been drawn using a system of photographic correction and recorded in a CAD programme. Therefore, these drawings are automatically positioned on a general map in their original location. The description of the graves is recorded in a relational database and every grave drawing is connected to the relative file. In this way, by performing queries to the database, it is possible to immediately visualize the corresponding graves and to realize, for example, typological and chronological maps. This paper gives examples from the medieval necropolis of Sous-le-Scex at Sion, in Switzerland.

In this paper we describe an application of image processing for the texture study of the use wear polishes on flint artifacts, experimentally obtained on two types of materials: wood and hide. The quantification of the textural properties of the images, obtained with a high magnification (200X) metallographic microscope strictly follows the rules indicated by HARALICK et al. in 1973. Twenty-two textural features were obtained from the image and statistical analysis then allowed the discrimination between the two classes of materials. The techniques employed, T-test and linear stepwise discriminant analysis, show that the discrimination between tools working wood and working hide is quite good, in the case of distance between the pixels = 1. Possibilities of future and more refined analyses are then discussed at the end of the paper.

This study deals with the correct storage of data concerning scientific analysis within cultural heritage. An analysis of the present situation indicates the danger of the dispersal of information. The data acquired in scientific analysis appear as signals and images. The different problems involved in both cases have been discussed. The case of the XRF spectra is presented as a detailed example of the proposed approach.

The authors describe the use of digital image processing techniques aimed at achieving a criteria for quantitative comparison. Usually, these procedures are executed using visual superimposition of images and constrained by the lack of rescaling and anamorphic making up that could be used to cancel the optical distortions caused by lenses. The criteria used within the experimental activity are aimed at helping the archaeologists without changing their traditional research methods. These techniques can be seen as an interesting tool able not only to aid impartial decision making but also to enhance the autoptic analysis of the findings. The most important algorithms pertaining to image processing have been used for investigating the origin and the age of moulded and handmade objects.

During excavations a large number of pottery sherds may be found. These sherds are photographed, measured, drawn and catalogued. Currently, all this work is done by hand, equating to a lot of routine work for the archaeologist. In this paper, two acquisition methods for archaeological finds are proposed, forming the first step towards automatic classification, that could help the archaeologist in their work and automate the archival process. Firstly, we present an overview of existing methods for archaeological image acquisition. These systems are half-automated, so the amount of work has not really been reduced. Next we focus on the acquisition methods to minimize failures in the output and to automate this process completely. In order to get 3D-information of a sherd, we use two different and representative methods, in particular, shape from stereo and shape from structured light for providing a 3D-surface representation of a sherd. Furthermore, we discuss a fusion of these two methods for an archaeological application and finally, the outlook for a computer based automatic classification of archaeological finds is given.

This project has studied metallic ingots from the Etruria Padana that come from either old excavations and more recent ones. The samples have been studied through chemical-physical structural and metallographic analysis; the process, conducted after years of restoration, leaves no trace on the object, as it concerns only a few milligrams of sample, which usually allows the identification of about 15 elements in the alloy. The sample is taken after accurate weighing and a series of chemical treatments, through its exposure to a strumental analysis through Atomic Absorption Spectrometry. With this type of analysis a qualitative and quantitative measurement of the elements of the alloy is made. The results of the analysis are transferred to tables in Excel; then, through these tables, a series of graphics are produced giving a better opportunity to evaluate the concentration of the most important elements of the alloy. The computer allows us also to organize, in the same table, the study of one or more elements in comparison with the others, in order to give different meanings to the results obtained, by for example, producing a decreasing movement in the concentration of an element; so we obtain some graphics that may better point out the differences. The use of computer graphics permits not only an easy reading of the elements of the alloy, but also better evidence of the differences regarding the composition that are particular to some different classes of metal objects.

Analysis of site formation processes is a field of research which can be enhanced by means of computer applications. In this paper, the authors suggest the use of image analysis applied to the study of soil micromorphology and to archaeological deposits, aimed at the qualitative and quantitative evaluation of the soil components. The presence of specific devices and software allow these problems to be faced in a quick and user-friendly way, thanks to the Windows interface. The case study looks at the Uan Afuda cave in the Tadrart Acacus (Libyan Sahara), and the sediments related to the Mesolithic occupation (8900-8000 BP), which is characterised by vegetable accumulations alternating to ashes layers. The application let us weigh the specific components of the layers, from both a microscopic (soil thin sections) and macroscopic (excavated stratigraphic section) level. Consistence of results opens up new perspectives of analysis for the comprehension of the formation processes in arid environments and for the cultural problems linked to them.

In ancient Roman world the monumental stone inscriptions had always an harmonic proportion. The metric measurement cannot define the train of their preparation; but the careful lay-out standard surely obeyed - perhaps also spontaneously - to some exact rules of the proportion (e.g. Hambidge's "dynamic symmetry", valid in some artistic fields) aimed at the primary purpose of all epigraphical expressions: the most efficacious communication. Some examples, mathematically verified by CILEA, are sown here.

In archaeology, when data is gathered directly at the digging, we face a long series of steps that slow down and complicate this process. In general, they are inconveniences assumed by the archaeologist with no further ado; they are a drawback associated with or inherent in field work. But these circumstances may or may not be acceptable; they may or may not influence the quality of the interpretation, enable short term review or have unintentionally manipulated it by selecting what and how we document at the digging. When we work with serious time restrictions, with a limited budget and in poor conditions and at the same time want to get the best documentation to safeguard for the future and to be able to use during the development and study process, our attitude changes and we would wish to have an option that streamlines those vexatiously slow moments. That is when we ponder the options for automating as many processes as possible in the field. Since 1985, we have been working on a digging, the uniqueness of which makes us wish to document each step with total accuracy. The information arises, sometimes, after many square meters of opened surface. Therefore we cannot fail to document anything. Add to this the fact that che digging itself and the interpretation of the place gave rise to a flood of controversy. Therefore there exists a double need to document the site completely. The work involved in drawing the charts and profiles soon became vexatiously, slow. The very numerous elements of interest that we wanted and the succession of layers of information were a "bottleneck" where the economic budget vaporised. It was at the beginning of the work when we thought about "streamlining" through selective gathering of data. But we did not do so; we looked for alternatives, we tried them out and we substantially improved the performance. In the final analysis, we had only improved the results in the field. We still had two steps left in the laboratory and, at the end, we would have only one rigid and modifiable chart at a very high cost. We all know how economic fluctuations effect budgets for digging. We needed to reduce our drawing costs in the field as well as in the laboratory in order to be able to destine that time and money to other segments of the research. Since 1993, an interdisciplinary team has been working on the ARCHEOGRAF project. Right from the start we focused on obtaining a tool that would assist drawing for diggings and that would reduce cost and time within a framework of four basic requirements: 1) be as universal as possible, 2) be totally computerised, 3) be easy and accurate and 4) be accessible for archaeologists. Today this tool is a reality meeting all the requirements that we had set out and opening new expectations for more advanced versions.

This paper illustrates the importance of digital records for the conservation of historic buildings and sites. The various survey techniques appropriate for the production of graphic documentation are explained, with an outline of the advantages of processing within a CAD environment. It introduces the debate on the scope and level of recording, and identifies problems and opportunities requiring further research. Finally, the paper stresses the need for integrated project management, and the development of recording strategies in conjunction with all other professional bodies involved in the conservation process.

This research project on the graphic documentation used in restoration grew out of a collaboration between ICCROM and the ICR. Among the objectives of the group were the formation of a documentation technique and the development of a useful, light and user friendly information instrument for the registration of graphic and documentary data. The principle goal was to reach a situation in which the restorer/conservator or the draughtsman could record, in a definitive way and directly on site, all the data related to the mapping techniques, distinct for each category and class, which characterise the graphic documentation of a restoration operation, without having to give up their personal happiness. This should be accomplished without altering in a drastic way the intrinsic complexity of the software used, while avoiding any prior hyper-specialist technical preparation. It is on site that it is necessary, to maximise tbc enormous potential offered by data elaboration systems that can store and process such enormous amounts of data in a simple way. There are two major classes of problems to solve. On the one hand all the psychological barrieres created by the personal resistance of the technicians strongly, and sometimes emotionally, tied on their role as documenters armed with pencils and crayons. On the other hand all the problems of a technical nature that are linked to the digital acquisition of the graphic base, to the planning of the form of the documentation, to the standardization of the topology of the hatch patterns and the personalization of the accessory procedures to the CAD programme.

The large-scale recording and investigation of standing archaeological monuments by conventional methods presents considerable problems of labour and expense. Modern techniques provide cost-effective methods applied in Pompeii, using widely available technology in digital imaging, computer hardware and software. These approaches provide important benefits both for research and for conservation policies. They facilitate the analysis of the structural history of the buildings, which forms a crucial part of the research programme of the Anglo-American Pompeii Project. However their advantages for the speedy documentation of the current condition of extensive areas of standing monuments are of more general application.

The paper presents a new method in analysing archaeological data using computer programs-mainly AUTOCAD with AME. The method combines recording of archaeological field work (such as survey topographical maps, drawing plans and sections) - with analysing layers, strata and artifacts in 3-D view. It was also used in other projects in this region, mainly for studying large architectural elements. Our method provides a more accurate device, and opens new possibilities in examining current archaeological issues.

A discussion is made about the problem of the graphic registering of a large mural, symbol of the Mexican culture of the fifties. Vantages of digital information are well known. Nevertheless, digitization of a 3712 m2 mural in order to capture information of the state of the mural before and after restoration, and analyse damages applying image processing tools, oblige to a solution that takes into account the particularities of the problem. The solution must ensure high precision of the survey to be a tool for restorators and must control general snapshot conditions to obtain images with equal characteristic that will allow the repetition of the same algorithm for the "Computer Aided Restoration" step. How were selected pixel definition, image size, camera location, image acquisition and digitization systems, and enlightenment condition was controlled? These are the topics developed in the present work.

This article describes work and experience in the computer documentation of restoration work. The final aim of this project is to develop a new standardized methodology for manipulating data relating to the process of conservation and restoration. The authors are members of an ICCROM/ICR special research group on graphic documentation and a NORMAL Commission sub-group for graphic documentation of mural paintings. The concept of standards is paramount. Standardization, information transfer and communication are stressed, especially in the area of training. Indeed, this approach unifies the description of documentation of restoration treatments performed by professional restorers and trainees from the two partner institutions. In view of the escalating use of computers in the field of conservation, it seems that little has been done to evaluate their impact and appropriate fields of application: the new converts have photographed themselves sitting at the computer keyboard much as our forebears were depicted with a prize buck. The attempt here is to plan for practical use by suggesting a method and specific operating techniques. Our aim is to supply user-friendly procedures (which help run more complex applications) to those who, with good reason, are neither expert in graphics software nor interested in becoming so. The quality of a computer system is not measured by spectacular rainbow effects but by the quantity of information available, its quality and retrievability. The diverse operating environments are defined - the open system and the closed system - analogous to the restoration worksite and the laboratory for chemico-physical analyses. On the one hand is the restoration worksite, the open system, where data are obtained; on the other is the laboratory, or closed system, where one collects and studies the data. What, then, is represented, and how? What is the structure of the information in relation to the model of the information and the model of the object? How should the graphic material be imported into the computer? How can one navigate through the various types of information while protecting the specific nature of each type? Information on hardware is scarce; there is not enough on software; there is a great deal on abstruse theoretical implications. In essence, hardware should allow software to run - no more than that. The principal idea is that the organization of information is the value-added factor produced in the process of registering data in a computer. These notes also describe some attempts at personalizing menus (icons, hatching, etc.) in AutoCAD (and other related software) and multimedia experiments using ToolsBook on a cycle of mural paintings in the Roman Forum.

The use of a scanner in archaeological excavation is a powerful tool for electronic documentation. A precise method to take advantage of this new hardware peripheral has been documented. There are four essential components: a camera, a portable personal computer, one handy-scanner (at least) and good software for image processing (bitmap and vector). The main advantages offered by this collection are that one obtains high metric precision, quick recording times and wide flexibility in data manipulation. A very complex structure (a knapping floor) from the archaeological excavation of Riparo Tagliente (VR), dating to the Epigravettian (late Upper Palaeolithic), was used to conduct the test. Starting with a mosaic of photographic images, it was possible to obtain the morphology of the paleosurface in an electronic format. After the automatic electronic input it is then possible to modify the shapes and qualities (thickness, colour, position . . .) of single objects like flints, bones, stones and so on. It is also possible to enhance the images with the application of filters to optimise contrast, brightness or clarity, to zoom into particular areas or to magnify a single object, and to work on different layers. The output on paper may be the partial or total restitution of the final image, or the print of a single group of objects in different formats and scale drawings. However, the main advantage is that of obtaining documentation during the excavation and building a complete database of alphanumerical, statistical and distribution data and object images.

The authors, who have been working since 1987 in Sphakia (Sw Crete), present some practical thoughts about how to use computers to improve the production of archaeological maps for publication. The research project, carried out by a multidisciplinary team of researchers, has foreseen an intensive survey work in the eparchy and the subsequent production of period maps for the final publication and of maps to display details of sherd find spots and other transect data. The computerized recording processing and enhancing of these maps was undertaken using the program SuperPaint 3.0. On the basis of their practical experience, the authors show how computers can help in the topographic and cartographic analysis of information and offer greater flexibility in the final presentation of results.

The purpose of this paper is to describe algorithms for constructing and drawing Harris Matrix. These algorithms are incorporated into a system that reads stratigraphic unit cards, checks consistency of physical relationships, constructs and draws the matrix and allows inspection of information supplied for each unit by navigating on the matrix and pointing to the desired unit. The paper also contains a brief description of this system.

Commencing with a review of the application of information processing to epigraphy, the use of image analysis and pattern recognition for the identification of epigraphic workshops is proposed. The project consists of the following steps: a) the collection of coeval documents from one and the same region (e.g., an ancient community); b) the extrapolation of single characters to be superimposed on the same texts in order to proceed to a statistical analysis of variations; c) the development of an “average” pattern; d) the superimposition (manual or automatic) of the pattern within the single texts, so as to ascribe them to the different workshops. An application of the method by the Centre for Textual Studies, Oxford, is described. The application allows rapid access to the PHI CD-ROM, developed and distributed by the Packard Humanities Institute, Los Altos, California.

The Geohm System belongs to the geo-electrical family of prospecting devices, and is a system for substratum exploration by electrically scanning along lines of preplanted sensors. The system generates a horizontal section of the values of resistivity in archaeological sites. The Geohm is an uncomplicated system comprising of a portable computer, an analogical-digital conversion device, a multi relay switcher (software controlled), a solid state current converter (also software controlled), and a lot of moving sensors inserted in the ground. The measured groups of returned signals are processed by complex algorithms before the data is validated: this technique makes it possible to obtain more reliable measurements and allows the user to reprogram the device. The speed of the system allows the user to survey a large area using several electrical devices.

Ceramigraph is an electronic and mechanical system designed to draw pottery through automatic processing and therefore excluding the problems of manual drawing. The system, particularly suitable for large quantities of pieces, is composed of a high precision 3D pantograph, connected with a Personal Computer and a digital tablet. The main features of the drawings are the following: digital; vectorial; processed by software; classifiable (on the basis, for example, of the Freeman code); printable on normal or glossy paper at any scale; recordable on databases, CD rom, syquest, floppy disks, and so on (the size of vector files is very small; for example on a 1.44 floppy disk, 100 drawings can be recorded). The classification and the representation of the graphical information processed in this way are fundamental for the typological and typometric interpretations.

The main advantages of archaeological excavation electronic video documentation are to be found in the highly informative potential of recording sound and movement with respect to documentation. This opens up the many potentials of electronic image management, both in data acquisition and processing. The first benefit deals with the possibility of direct computer interfacing, the real-time control (via the monitor) of each frame sequence, and more generally the useful tendency of video devices to be automated for recording. The second main benefit deals with the extended possibilities of electronic image enhancing and processing, that can be efficiently used in archaeological research.

Photogrammetric display gives the archaeologist the possibility of personally constructing maps to meet his needs through the selection of features shown, prominence assigned to them and through the accurate and detailed rendering of relief. The aid of computers is very important, both for database construction and for the full utilisation of analytical photogrammetric systems.

This paper presents an experimental project in the use of Personal Computers for teaching archaeology at the Faculty of Humanities of the University of Venice. During three academic years from 1987/88 to 1989/90 the students worked on input and output of excavation data from existing information complied on sheets called “Unità Stratigrafiche” and “Elementi Strutturali”, using the Software Data Base III Plus. Furthermore the students began to use the graphical software package AutoCad, to draw the successive layers including their with tridimensional rendering.

The article is addressed to the archaeologist, usually a “non expert” beneficiary of the innovative computer science techniques, but, at the same time, bearer of very complex requests. It proposes to give a concise and up to date view of the state of CAD software, especially as regards tridimensional graphics.

The article is addressed to the archaeologist, usually a “non expert” beneficiary of the innovative computer science techniques, but, at the same time, bearer of very complex requests. It proposes to give a concise and up to date view of the state of CAD software, especially as regards tridimensional graphics.

The ARCOS System (ARchaeological COmputerized System), created in Karlsruhe, permits the automatic recording of ceramic objects and their subsequent processing and graphical representation. The System consists of two elements: ARCOS-1 is a mobile configuration for image recording; ARCOS-2 is a stationary data processor. The authors describe in particular the test carried out during the excavations at Velia (Salerno) in the summer of 1987. This test led to the graphical documentation of about 200 ceramic artefacts.