Preface to Supplement 5 - 2014.

The Author illustrates an international research project on the history of archaeological computing which was promoted by the Accademia Nazionale dei Lincei and the Italian CNR. As part of this project, a website dedicated to the virtual museum of archaeological computing is currently under construction, with the purpose of retracing the roots and reconstructing the development of this recent and evolving discipline. Along with a more traditional navigation method into the subject matter, which is presented in chronological order, some cultural itineraries have been planned: scholars will be invited to share stories, illustrate the establishment of institutions or laboratories dedicated to computer applications in archaeology and propose innovative research paths.

The attempts to model past societies by the latest techniques, such as multi-agent systems, are limited by the difficulties in modeling the processes of Human and Social Sciences: social organization, social rules, management, societal attitudes. While addressing this problem, the archaeologist is often led to select the climatic change and the economic processes, which are easier to quantify and model and therefore to find only “eco-systemic” explanations for changes in societies. We are here trying to initiate work on the modeling of such processes, the foundations of which are found in the work of earlier authors (history, anthropology, sociology).

Archaeological surveys apply to remains of various size and complexity. Our daily missions lead us to choose our means of planning with a great variation of scales. Up until now, at the Inrap, hand drawing and topography helped us conduct survey operations by recording brief amounts of information according to simplified geometric shapes. Computer evolution now offers solutions which allow us 3D acquisition by photogrammetry. They come as an additional topographic plan and can even replace our drawing of artifacts with accurate information which is not possible to achieve with traditional methods. 3D use makes representation easier in any type of projection. Free or with parameters, it simplifies the realisation of a global view by registering in the graphic chain as envisaged today. Taking measurements by traditional means requires much time which could be better used for study. Our approach which tends to dissociate the register of geometrics in the interpretation of remains, creates a more accurate frame¬work for the analysis. Archaeological artifacts also benefit from 3D acquisition advantages. Indeed, what generally defines archaeological drawing is the application of graphic standards in descriptive geometry. This review of the artifacts is a difficult exercise and modeling makes it easier. The illustrations obtained therefore constitute a reliable geometrically graphic basis on which observations and analysis results can be reported. We found that 3D acquisition by photogrammetry was a suitable and flexible solution to our activities. The richness and quality of these surveys are an asset for the analysis and storage of information. Moreover, the time invested in these projects is less than that used with traditional planning methods.

Gavrinis, on the estuary of the river Vannes, is known for the extraordinary abundance of engravings preserved on the monolithic wall pillars. These engravings have of course contributed to the reputation of the site, to such an extent that the terms “temple” or “sanctuary” have spontaneously added themselves to the notion of sepulchral space which is generally applied to this family of Neolithic architecture. Our objective is to re-qualify these representations using a new frame of reference, based on a new corpus of engraved signs, including their architectural context and position in the volume of the rock. Recording of the topographical, archaeological, petrographic and acoustic data of the cairn and the passage grave provides a representation of both architecture and engraved (or painted) signs. Our survey involved re¬cording geolocational data (108 million points), with different scales of acquisition. Thus the whole cairn and surrounding ground were scanned using a time-of-flight camera. Then the walls of the tomb and the upper face of the cover slab were recorded with a second scanner with infra-millimetric resolution. Dif¬ferent software treating point clouds were tested to find the best tool for rendering the engravings using a graphic tablet. For the engraved signs on granite, a comparison of methods is proposed, showing the advantages and disadvantages of old techniques (stamping, tracing paper, polyethylene cellophane) in relation to new techniques (digital photographs, scanner 3D). There is no doubt that the scanner enables engravings to be reproduced with the exact relief of the rock, as well as in the architectural sequence of the monument. However, the precision of scanner recordings of surface lines on hard rock (sandstone) is no greater than that of digital photography with oblique lighting or digital image process revealing colors. The two methods are thus complementary.

AFT is an expert land survey and topography office situated in the urban area of Rouen (Haute-Normandie). For about six years, its land surveyor and photogrammetric activities have allowed it to work on archaeological sites. A new department, named AFT Archaeology, is now in charge of taking topographical surveys in order to produce 3D models of the archaeological sites and historical monu¬ments. First, in this article we are going to describe the laser scan techniques, the kind of laser used and the information processing. Then, we are going to illustrate some applications on archaeological and historical sites and also some exceptional objects we scanned. These examples of what we are doing will be illustrated by a 3D model presentation, section and map. In a few words, this little introduction will aim to show the interest of laser digitisation and 3D modelling techniques: perfect digital copy, extremely accurate and exhaustive (up to 1/10e mm of precision), study support, evaluation support (3D presentation in museography, pictures for archaeological excavation reports, etc).

Despite the damage caused by earthquakes, the ruins of the Sanctuary of Saint-Syméon (Syria) still stand proudly in the landscape and constitute the distinct but complementary phases of the archaeological study of the monument. The French Archaeological Mission of Saint-Syméon-le-Stylite, carried out by the CNRS-UMR 8167 Orient et Méditerranée and largely funded by the Ministry of Foreign and European Affairs, has been committed to the 3D rendering of architectural drawings starting in the early 2000s, thanks to a partnership with the École Nationale des Sciences Géographiques. The 3D data acquired over the years give us an important platform on which to apply a working protocol established in the case of La Résidence, a civilian building in the village of Télanissos. A wide range of techniques was applied and used to create a digital model as a support for the navigation and the interactive management of documentary sources that have facilitated a hypothetical reconstruction of the building. The NUBES information system has been used to describe, analyse, document and share digital representations of this building. The main contribution of this work is the combination of archaeological assumptions with documentation methods, in a dynamic and multi-user perspective.

Among 3D tools, photogrammetry has received growing attention for the modeling of under¬ground spaces. The flexibility of its implementation and the wide field that it can cover encourage its use for recording decorated walls and their contexts. As part of a developing program ANR microanalysis on prehistoric art, 3D photogrammetry modeling were carried out in caves in Blanchard (Indre, France) and Rouffignac (Dordogne, France). I make quickly reference at two examples which are developed in article: 1) the numbering and analysis of the condition of the walls and the engravings; 2) localization in 3D pointcloud of archaeological data (paintings, prints, objects of flint or bone stuck into the wall) and links with different kinds of information about them (type, descriptions, dimensions, drawing, etc.). These applications illustrate the possibilities offered by current 3D tools in the study of rock art, and are sometimes new ways for the study of prehistoric representations in their geomorphological and archaeological context

3D recording and viewing are about to become a common function in consumer electronic equip-ment, while 3D modeling is still seldom used in archaeological research, even in sectors where it could bring a concrete improvement such as in use wear studies. A new type of expensive microscope has been proposed to laboratories for making 3D models from direct macroscopic and microscopic observation: the digital microscope. Claimed to cover a wide magnification range up to many thousands of times, it involves software and hardware solutions which are now available at low cost for updating our current equipment. Since digital technology is progressing very quickly, it is disputable to spend large amounts of money in closed instruments, which are quickly outdated, when cheap alternative modular solutions can fill the same need. These solutions are based on two complementary principles whose effectiveness depends on the magnification scale: photogrammetry and image stacking. Photogrammetry requires only photographic skill for the acquisition and appropriate software or on line services for modeling, while image stacking, beyond real size (1:1), involves additional accessories for recording and software in both steps. By combin¬ing photographic and microscope lenses it is possible to get a light and flexible combo for microscopic recording in the field, not only in 2D but also in 3D, when connected to a laptop or a smartphone. This paper reviews the affordable software and hardware solutions available at the end of 2012.

In building archaeology, the survey is the most important tool. It gives a global analysis of the building: its relative chronology, the building stratigraphy, the architectural techniques, etc. These elements indicate the progress of the construction site. A section of the “Archéométrie et Archéologie” laboratory (UMR 5138), managed by Prof. N. Reveyron, is specialized in building archaeology. Archaeologists, con¬fronted with the analysis of a building, often choose the manual survey, “stone by stone”. In 2010, the laboratory equipped itself with a LaserScan (Faro Photon 120) and software of processing point-cloud (Faro Scene and JRC Reconstructor) for surveys of medieval archaeology. Formerly unable to use this type of tool, the archaeologists of this laboratory received in situ training in the manipulation of the laser scanner and in the data processing. The goal of this acquisition was not to produce simple point-cloud surveys, but to cross the traditional technique (hand-sketch survey) with the lasergrammetry, in order to enrich the graphic documentation, which is the basis of any building archaeology analysis. It should document a building, improve the hand survey and facilitate the realization of new surveys, without the need for an often too-expensive scaffold. This article presents our methodology and the results obtained during building analysis of the Romanesque Church of Veyrines in Ardèche; it aims to demonstrate the potentials and the limitations of this technique of 3D acquisition, and to compare the needs and the technical solutions afforded by building archaeology.

Full graphic documentation finally seems within reach thanks to virtual 3D models of archaeo¬logical remains derived from digital photogrammetry or laser acquisition. Considered as a “must” in accuracy, precision, completeness and objectivity, digital models may be used independently of studies planned to be made on these media, unlike a traditional survey specific to the individual study in which it is included. If the technology is well developed, we still need to better distinguish between archaeological observations that are made usable with these digital models and those that are not in reference to direct ground studies. Moreover, in excavation reports and archaeological publications, these virtual models lead to the production of 2D images. Their novelty encourages experimentation by using different render¬ings, sometimes to the detriment of the scientific value of these images, which has to be guaranteed as a “classical illustration”.

The application of photogrammetry in archaeology has developed greatly in the last ten years. A short while ago, the technique was confined to prestigious operations because it required sophisticated and expensive technical means. Nowadays, it can be used by all operators thanks to the increase in computer hardware and the development of specific software, such as those based on the close-range photogrammetric technique. The democratization in the use of these powerful, fast and accurate tools allows users to increase the number of surveys and opens, at the same time, new research perspectives. In addition, the ability to manage more data in a short time makes it possible to deal with new topics that were previously difficult to face, while their efficiency changes the standpoint and the interest on the subject. Nevertheless, such changes involve developing new intervention strategies and working methods. Photogrammetric processes have been implemented on three recent archeological programs in Egypt: the Tiberius Gate at Medamoud, the el-Nabih cistern in Alexandria, the Ayn-Soukhna charred boat. The efficiency and the interest of photogrammetric solutions have been tested on these various fieldwork contexts.

This paper proposes an experimental feedback on the use of various forms of 3D restorations of monumental complexes. We refer in particular to a castle (Chinon) and a monastery (Saint-Cosme in La Riche, near Tours), two historic monuments that are the property of the General Council of Indre-et-Loire. 3D restorations are generally intended for the general public, but their interest also involves archaeological research, by allowing scholars to test hypotheses and visualize buildings in their original aspect. They also impose a synthetic vision of monumental large sets that are unevenly documented, and allow a better comprehension of their general organization and evolution. Whatever their objective is, they can have several levels of detail and can be associated with databases which supply further information. According to budget, extension, archaeological knowledge of the monuments to be modelled and the desired educational aim, solutions are diverse and can go from the simple model to the dumping in the virtual image, via various levels of detail. By foreseeing all the operational questions before launching a project of 3D restoration, it is possible to reach the intended goals at the lowest cost.

The Cluny Abbey, the greatest building of European Christendom in the 12th century, has been transformed during its long history. The evolution of the place can be studied thanks to an abundant documentation, through archeological excavations and the study of landscape. The stratigraphic complex¬ity of the successive buildings and the vastness of the territory in relation with its hydrographical system, convinced us to install a SIG database and research system. The Abbey is located at the confluence of two rivers, progressively converted by the monks, in order to obtain an extremely rational use of the water. The installation of a collaborative and interdisciplinary platform, called SIG 4D, dedicated to the history and archeology of the Cluniac landscape, requires the grouping of various types of data, that are often very diverse. The integration of 3D elements and their geolocalization in the geographic system bring technical difficulties which have to be solved. Starting with the documentary study and the excavations, we examine the questions linked to interdisciplinary use of various types of SIG and CAO data, and their dissemination amongst various researchers. Numeric tools offer new possibilities which encourage us to elaborate treatment procedures and data dissemination which are better adapted to the hybrid nature of archeological artifacts and to the study process of the historical traces in architecture and territory.

This paper contributes to the cross-domain mutual enrichment between archaeology and virtual reality. We are presenting here Immersia, an open high-end platform dedicated to research on immersive virtual reality and its usages. Immersia is part of the European project Visionair that offers an infrastruc¬ture for high level visualisation facilities open to research communities across Europe. In Immersia, two projects are currently active on archaeological themes. One is relative to the study of the Cairn of Carn, with the Creaah, a multidisciplinary research laboratory of archeology and archeosciences, and the other concerns the reconstitution of the Gallo-Roman villa of Bais, with the French institute Inrap.

The Vallée des Merveilles (Valley of Marvels), in the Mercantour National Park (France), is a major place for studying the late Neolithic Age until the beginning of the Bronze Age: since the early 20th century, more than 4000 engraved rocks have been listed, representing 40,000 carvings. The Laboratoire Départemental du Lazaret has been studying these engravings for more than forty years: a large database describes the whole rocks and figures and is still filled with new findings. But such a large amount of data from a vast archaeological site needs efficient tools for its study, such as mapping the location of the rocks. Many improvements regarding the study of the carvings and their spatial distribution were made possible by the development of a web GIS: consulting the data is made easier and clearer with a web-mapping platform and specific tools. Filtering for choosing the data to display and automatically generated maps allow an overall view of the spatial distribution of the Marvels’ engravings. Using both the IGN’s Geoportal data and cartographic web libraries produced an efficient and complete web service for consulting and analyzing the engraved rocks of the Valley of Marvels. This one can be used for any area in the Mercantour Park, as long as new data are added to the databases.

The ALPAGE project is conducted by a large team of archaeologists, historians, geomatics and computer scientists coordinated by Hélène Noizet, totalling about twenty researchers from several laboratories, including the LAMOP, ArScAn, LIENS, L3i as well as IGN-COGIT, IRHT, and the Centre de topographie historique de Paris (National Archives). Together they built a historical GIS, in order to examine the spatial dimension of historical events for the city of Paris. The project began in September 2006, lasted 44 months, and it is now hosted by the TGE Humanum (http://alpage.huma-num.fr/fr/). Through a digital webmapping platform accessible via the Internet, information co-produced by the researchers can be superimposed on present-day spatial data (blocks, parcels, roads, addresses). After presenting the general framework of the project and the application of webmapping tools, the authors illustrate the results coming from the analysis of a database which collects a series of tax records dating back to the period of Philippe le Bel, conducted together with the IRHT-CNRS, and its integration within the ALPAGE GIS platform.

Under the PCR (Collective Research Project) entitled “The Charentais marshes from the Middle Ages to the modern era: population, environment and economy” a webmapping platform was implemented. The goal is to reconstruct the context and the lifestyle of the inhabitants of these coastal areas over a period from the Early Middle Ages to modern times. This requires multidisciplinary research work, which involves a process of gathering information from multiple sources in that territory. The webmapping site allows the integration of geographic data, nature, provenance and various dates, and makes them accessible in a simple manner to all members of the project. Researchers can then easily cross-check all this information, which supports different thoughts, assumptions and conduct analyses. The tool also allows users to acquire new information, for example from new discoveries or simply from maps, documentation or existing databases. The webmapping site quickly took a central place in the project. The various examples presented in this article illustrate the interest of such a solution which suggests a rapid development of the use of this kind of platform in the field of archeology.

Two years after the presentation of the first version of ArkeoGIS during the JIAP meeting, version 2 is now functional. It allows French and German archaeologists working in the Rhine Valley to have an online tool, free, easy to approach and searchable on four levels. ArkeoGIS combines on a single map the available archaeological information on several thousand deposits located on both sides of the river. The chronological range takes into account the sites from the Bronze Age to the Middle Ages. The program, which is funded by INTERREG IVa Upper Rhine, is ongoing and provides the archaeological community with the source code of the software, allowing other researchers dealing with the study of border territories to adapt this tool to their needs.

The study of Roman cities relies on architectural typologies created before the middle of the 20th century. The recent use of computer and especially of GIS in archaeological studies requires new approaches and the definition of efficient typologies. The study of the shops of Ostia between the 1st and the 4th c. AD is based on the concept of an entity-relationship model that requires redefinition of some urban components. Through a few case-studies this paper aims to describe the contribution of an entity-relationship model to the study of Roman cities.

Stratigraphic recording is at the basis of any scientific archaeological investigation. It is the memory of what has been excavated and then destroyed, and it allows scholars to collect information following a reasoned and rigorous procedure. The use of databases and their implementation through increasingly complex tools force us to harmonize and rationalize field recording and helps save time and improve efficiency, a primary issue for preventive archaeology. At the Inrap, in the context of the Seine-North Europe Canal project, a technical platform is working hand in hand with the field teams. This technical support has been used in Noyon (Oise) for the implementation and the follow-up of the recording system. The vastness of the operation influenced the choice of several techniques. Four field tablets, made available by the Inrap Direction Scientifique et Technique, were used. Each one was equipped with the database CADoc (by T. Guillemard) and the system Stratifiant (by B. Desachy) for the treatment of stratigraphical data. In addition, management and querying of spatial data were carried out directly on the terrain. The example of Noyon is the departure point for the presentation of these methods and allows the authors to discuss their advantages and drawbacks.

Ancient objects, be they materials collected on archaeological sites or displayed in museums, simultaneously carry information (type and material, decoration, location, etc.) and are subject to study (analysis, reproduction, publication, etc.). The CIDOC CRM is an ontology intended to facilitate the integration, mediation and interchange of cultural heritage information. This standard gives us the possibility to structure detailed descriptions of individual items (a vase or a statue, etc.), of parts of a whole (a fragment or an element of architectural decoration), or of conceptual objects (models known through its replicas, typology, and taxonomy), and covers contextual information such as the historical, geographical and theoretical background. Associated with technical standards and thesauri, the CIDOC CRM is helpful for data interchange, interoperability, Semantic Web and Linked Data approach.