Archeologia e Calcolatori 12 - 2001

In order to test the ability of textual coding to depict the features of structured images, a corpus of images of Near-Eastern seals of the late IVth millennium BC was studied through different exploratory analysis techniques. Two different coding systems were considered: the classical presence/absence coding of iconographical elements present in the images and a new textual coding, based on a formalised text describing the image. These were submitted to Multiple and Textual Correspondence Analyses. The textual analyses were performed according to two different coding systems, and several choices of the items involved. The results of the different analyses are discussed and compared here. In particular, textual analysis proved effective in substituting the classical coding in the description of the iconographic elements appearing in the images. In addition, it allowed us to broaden the investigation to include aspects of the images (occurrence of fixed sub-patterns and composition) which are beyond the capacities of classical coding. The ability of textual coding to select particular elements, and/or element sequences, to be taken into account in the analyses, was also considered an interesting feature for fine-tuning the analyses to the particular characters of specific corpora. Thus, the use of a formalised text as an intermediate between images and analysis tools proved to be a method worth using, in spite of the special care needed, and some still unsolved difficulties.

The development of the “Caere Project”, conducted by the Istituto per l’Archeologia Etrusco-Italica of the Italian National Research Council as part of the “Cultural Heritage” Special Project, has made it possible to establish a unique and comprehensive model for the digitalization of excavation data within a GIS platform. This model has been developed to record, process and publish data coming from the excavations conducted by the Institute in the central area of the urban plateau of the ancient Etruscan town of Cerveteri. From the outset of the project, much attention has been placed upon the discussion of methodological and technical issues, in order to form a framework for data acquisition and processing. The methodologies adopted and processes adhered to are described, with particular reference to the problems of: data representation and encoding, standardisation of the descriptive language, application of Spatial Analysis techniques, creation of a multimedia software for data diffusion and publication.

As part of the Caere Project, the author describes the diverse stages that have characterised the acquisition and encoding in a digital format of the excavation diaries through the application of SGML. This encoding language for electronic documents is focused mostly on describing the internal structure of the data and the information contained in the text. The SGML syntax in some aspects is complex, and inevitably this has been an obstacle to the diffusion of the language. The transcription and the encoding of the diaries have been completed and a flexible querying system of the SGML documents has been created. The decision to use the Internet in order to distribute information has also implied a study of the viability of converting SGML documents into XML, which in the last few years has been replacing SGML, from which it derives. However, the completion of the encoding project of the excavation diaries does not represent the final stage; in fact, it is the new phase that it has initiated which is important: further DTDs will be created which will allow the acquisition and encoding of the descriptions of every find. The user will be able to navigate and explore the textual data and, where a more detailed study is required, analyse the objects together with the topographical information.

In the process of creating an archaeological information system of the excavations in Cerveteri, the decision was made not only to use a more traditional database, but also to develop a recording methodology that connects the text of the excavation diaries, encoded by the application of a mark-up language (SGML), with the cartographic data. In order to query all the excavation diaries, an information retrieval application was required, with the aim to retrieve not only words but also specific meanings and contexts. In this paper the author describes the creation of an internal software application for providing information retrieval from SGML texts and of its subsequent implementation on a Web server. The paper is divided into two parts: the first describes the application itself and the concepts on which it is based and the second part discusses the technology that has been applied and the results achieved. In order to construct a querying system for the content of the excavation diaries, both ASP and VBSCRIPT technologies have been used, as they are particularly useful for constructing client-server applications for an intranet. Through applying such technologies, it has been possible to connect the textual sources with the digital cartography through specific hypertext links, allowing the visualisation of the search results in a browser such as Explorer or Netscape Navigator. This application has also been designed to allow data diffusion through the Internet.

The author describes the experimentation of the Text Encoding Initiative Lite for the encoding of published archaeological documents, a part of the research program of the Caere Project. In fact, the experimentation with SGML as a tool for documenting, querying and subsequently interpreting the yearly diaries of the Vigna Parrocchiale excavations suggested expanding the use of this encoding procedure to also include published archaeological reports, particularly those associated with other monumental features in the urban plateau of Cerveteri. As a case study, the encoding scheme of the Text Encoding Initiative (TEI) Lite, integrated by the DTD already defined, has been used in the publication of the excavations conducted in 1912-13 by Raniero Mengarelli, in the same area of the Vigna Parrocchiale, and published in «Studi Etruschi» in 1936. In order to verify the flexibility of this encoding method within different types of archaeological publications, the same procedure has been experimented on another text written in 1937 by Raniero Mengarelli and extracted from «Notizie degli Scavi di Antichità».

The aim of this paper is to describe the principles on which the Caere GIS has been created and to offer an overview of the spatial analyses conducted and the theoretical principles on which they are based. In order to satisfy the ultimate goal of the project, a solution is described for the dissemination of the results across the Internet through GIS technology. Indeed, at the outset of the project, the decision had been taken to create both a GIS application for internal use and a separate dynamic GIS multimedia application for data diffusion across the Internet. Through the GIS platform, thematic maps of the site have been created, exploiting the ability of topological analysis to explore the mutual relationships between structures. The use of the GIS was not restricted solely to this application, as its full potential was exploited through the use of its analytical engine. Several spatial analysis techniques were used (in particular Viewshed analysis) both for the study of the distribution of finds at site level and for the wider analysis of the surrounding territory of Cerveteri. Finally, the on-line publication of the GIS will offer a chance to create a living document, continually reviewed and updated by the author. It will also constitute the first step towards the standardisation of a metalanguage, that will permit effective multimedia communication and the exchange of different data formats and sources.

A new approach to the topic of Late Bronze-First Iron Age settlement patterns in the south-eastern countryside around Seville (Andalusia, Spain) is presented by the application of a new landscape analysis technique: visibility analysis. Some aspects of visibility analysis are discussed, as well as the resulting methodological proposals. Finally, this methodology is applied to the study area, generating historical interpretations about related questions (settlement patterns, means of communication).

The purpose of this article is to illustrate the enormous opportunities that the archaeologist is offered in the study of historical landscapes by the process of reconstructing spatial models. This formal process is characterised by the progressive incorporation of social and ecological variables in the form of numerical cartographic surfaces within a given model. In fact, the distortion of social space requires such a quantity, variety and complexity of operations that they could not be realised and synthesised without the help of a computer. Once this process has been completed, it can be exploited in various fields, like the history of roadways and transportation networks, or for a better comprehension of the effects of certain settlement layers on other levels of social occupation of space.

The application of Viewshed analysis techniques to the study of archaeological landscapes, through the medium of a GIS, is a field of research that has a long pedigree. However, it is noticable that studies have focused particularly on the prehistoric and Roman periods, with little application within the area of medieval studies. This paper aims to explore the potentials that different forms of spatial analysis offer, with particular emphasis on visibility in relation to medieval landscape research. A further dimension that is explored within this framework is the use of spatial analysis techniques as a tool for aiding the management of cultural heritage. The study forms part of an on-going research program on the Isle of Wight, being conducted by the Department of Archaeology, University of Southampton, with the aim of understanding the medieval settlement and agriculture on the island. Investigations have been conducted on a range of sites, varying from Deserted Medieval Villages to the Cistercian Abbey of Quarr. The initial results of this research indicated a strong pattern of movement of people to and from the island, a probable result of the strategic military importance the island had during the Middle Ages. Therefore, in collaboration with the Isle of Wight County Council Archaeological Unit, an investigation was launched into the effectiveness of the medieval beacon signalling system on the island, in order to appraise its success, the choice of positioning and the identification of sites. The results collected through the application of Cumulative Viewshed Analysis were then tested for their statistical significance in order to fullfill the CRM aspect of this research.

In recent years, the use of DGPS (Digital Ground Positioning System) satellite antennas has become widespread within the framework of the historical-topographic research. They give us the possibility of geo-referencing, in a simple manner, different objects spread across the territory, and permit the delimitation and geometrical survey of specific areas rendered in the shape of polygons. In the present project, new case-studies, aimed at defining new procedures for the geo-referencing of territorial elements, are produced. In these case-studies the use of DGPS, employed in a new and integrated way with other modern topographical instruments, has enabled us to survey complex structures and to produce detailed morphological studies of the sites. The archaeological sites that have been examined show great differences. Firstly, in their geomorphologic characteristics, the historical period, the cultural environment and related problems and secondly, for the different scale of the research, procedures and level of investigation of the archaeological research.

The paper examines the applications of some software technologies in archaeological research and discusses a number of errors that may derive from a naïve approach. In considering databases, relational databases have strict requirements that are fulfilled in most cases when dealing with archaeological records, but cannot be given for granted without further investigation. It is suggested that XML technology may solve many of these issues. Digital Elevation Models generated automatically by GIS software may create undesired or unrealistic terrain features and introduce errors, as well as GPS data acquisition. The frequent absence in archaeological GIS papers of an error analysis confirms the lack of a critical approach to these mathematical tools. Finally, computer visualisation is examined in the paper, with a similar criticism to an exclusively visual interpretation of Virtual Reality reconstructions. Since all the tools examined in the paper were created within other applicative contexts, it is hoped that a more conscious approach may better integrate them into archaeological method and theory.

In this paper, a general framework for using Virtual Reality techniques in the domain of Archaeological Visualisation is presented. It is argued that “visualising” is not the same as “seeing”, but is an inferential process to understand reality. A definition of Enhanced Reality is also presented, and how visual models can be used in order to obtain additional information about the dynamic nature of historical processes and archaeological data.

The use of Virtual Archaeology is expanding rapidly, not only in the museum and archaeology professions, but also in the broadcast media, tourism and heritage industries. Many concerns have been expressed about the lack of transparency and difficulty in validating the models and presentations used in these contexts. A case study is used to illustrate the role of metadata in addressing these problems. The paper argues that appropriate metadata documentation of projects may extend the critical apparatus that we take for granted in scientific papers into the world of distributed Virtual Archaeology. Three recently introduced XML languages for multimedia (SMIL), vector graphics (SVG) and virtual reality (X3D) applications are examined with particular reference to their metadata hosting capabilities. Finally, an outline proposal for a Virtual Archaeology Metadata Profile and Schema is presented, based on refinements of the Dublin Core and other metadata schemas.

This article tells the history of the interaction between a scientific program and the use of digital technologies for handling and distributing archaeological information. We try to show, using an anthropological and epistemological approach, how archaeological work is modified by the introduction of digital technologies and the change in dynamics that this introduction causes to our scientific program. We also analyse the theoretical-ideological formation and the ethical problems arising from this interaction.

The group of bronze sheets with repoussé decoration, kept in the Ny Carlsberg Glyptotek and coming from the princely burial in Tomb XI at the Colle del Forno necropolis, has been identified as the decoration of a chariot and the magnificent upholstery from horse trappings. This group represents a collection of extraordinary interest regarding figurative culture in the Tiber river area in the Late Orientalizing Period, an identification proven by a second group of objects kept in the same museum. The decorative repertory represents one of the most refined expressions of the artistic style called “Orientalizzante fiorito”, which is best known from the decoration of bucchero pottery, carved ivories and ostrich eggs. Computer graphic techniques have been used for the documentation and study of this repertory, using as a base the excellent photographic documentation provided by the Glyptotek. This methodology, experimented through the use of a graphical workstation at the Istituto per l’Archeologia Etrusco-Italica, provides the opportunity to create a graphical documentation very close to the original technical and graphical cipher and qualifies itself as a very important tool for reading elements regarding the incision technique. However, close collaboration between the specialist and the archaeologist is essential in order to validate this as a useful scientific method of documentation.

In this article the authors present a method for obtaining a line-art representation of a mural painting using colour photography. First, the information concerning colour components was separated and then the contours of graphic representations were extracted. The result is an exact copy of the original and this level of precision makes it an important solution to the problem of registering and recording mural paintings. This method has been shown to be a useful solution for the documentation of the state of conservation of paintings, as well as a means for keeping track of restoration work; furthermore, it provides a fundamental method for analysing paint compositions. The approach was developed bearing in mind the possibility of use by non-specialist computer users: no programming knowledge is assumed and the use of shareware software was always preferred.

Review article.

Review article.