Archeologia e Calcolatori 6 - 1995

A corpus of 963 images belonging to Near-Eastern seals of the Uruk/Jamdet Nasr period (late fourth Millennium BC) was analysed and classified through multivariate analysis techniques, applied on both presence/absence of iconographical elements and a text describing each image. Methods and results are discussed and compared. The presence/absence analysis is the most effective in dividing the corpus into different groups of images (scenes with common animals, “special” animals such as hybrids, war, religious, complex handicraft and schematic handicraft scenes). The results of textual analysis are similar in many respects, though here common features between different groups of seals are underscored. Textual analysis also seems a promising approach for the study of syntactical patterning of the seal images. The study of repeated segments (i.e. fixed sequences of lexical forms occurring in different texts) proved the existence of fixed sun-patterns, consisting of two or more elements and attitudes, which occur in images belonging both to the same group of seals and to different ones. Fixed sun-patterns tend, however, to occur more frequently on images characterized by a simple and repetitive structure, whereas they are only rarely used in the most complex seals. Finally, results of both analyses effectively proved that the iconography of the seals is related to their origin and function. Religious scenes and representations of hybrids, snakes, birds and lions generally occur on seals or sealings found in temple contexts, often on sealings fastening movable containers or storeroom doors; war scenes are apparently found only in urban centres. Complex handicraft scenes tend to be found in storeroom or in domestic contexts, often on “clay balls” (sort of primitive administrative documents). Finally, schematic images generally occur in domestic, non-official context. Schematic seals were apparently rarely used for sealing; most of their images derive from original seals and not from impressions. On the other hand, religious scenes seem especially typical of southern Mesopotamia, complex handicraft scenes of Iran and Syria, whereas identical schematic seals are found in all geographical areas. Further developments of the methods tested on the seal corpus (firstly through a deeper interaction with repeated segments analysis; secondly through development of methods for the analysis of the general image composition and finally through an integrated approach considering all aspects together) may lead to interesting results for the study not only of the seals themselves, but in general of structured images of different kinds.

Recently, an interesting debate has developed in the context of historic archaeological disciplines concerning the employment of typical technical scientific methodologies and instruments utilized in research. The aim of this article is to contribute to this debate by showing how it is possible to conjointly utilize information technology techniques and statistical methods in archaeological research for both descriptive and interpretative purposes. The objective was successfully achieved by integrating several common spatial-statistical methods (Ripley's K-function) with the potential offered by GIS. In fact, the collection of files and graphical data representation was followed up by statistical data processing which, with the identification of several important parameters, has enabled GIS files to be improved with further information for subsequent processing.

The Geographic Information System ODYSSEUS presented here is a database, set up according to the procedures established by the Ministero dei Beni Culturali e Ambientali, and extended through an additional information system relevant to archaeological and geophysical prospection, core drilling and surface collection. The database is organised for information retrieval (Highway) whereby any data may be found by name rather than graphical identificatio. The drawing of maps is undertaken in vector (DWG) format, the most commonly used in archaeology. In essence, the system is designed to receive images and link them to the appropriate database tables. It allows the visualisation and management of a DWG file, and the overlay at the same scale on other raster images (e.g. aerial photos), thereby producing a vector drawing of all the data highlighted on the raster maps. For all database “objects”, a series of mathematical algorithms automatically construct thematic maps. Geo-archaeological exploration of the data inserted in the database - geophysical prospections, core drillings, surface distribution of ceramic fragments, etc. - increases the number of parameter classes important in determining the characteristics for settlement-location models. This article provides a brief overview of the ODYSSEUS system, and two examples of its application: Oppido Mamertina, in the Calabria region of Italy, and the “Microregion”, a large area under protection in eastern Hungary.

In describing graphics description with electronic tools, solid modelling is the application in which several techniques (2 and 3 dimensional CAD, image processing, animation) act together. Solid modelling is therefore a very important topic, both from methodological and practical aspects. This paper deals with the process of generating a digital model, and discusses the following statements: A. The analysis of archaeological evidence is based on the description of a real (and therefore continuous) and complex space through the identification and coding of its components; this activity is then undertaken through a modelling process. The models used for the analysis must have at least the basic requirements for the electronic description of the objects: a quantitative requirement – to be able to describe numerically and analytically the objects in space (vector data); a qualitative requirement – to able to describe their physical/optical features (visual/raster data); a synthesis requirement – to be able to consider the codes and the rules of union of the components (text and topological data). B. The data collected have to be acquired, worked out and edited coherently with the need of their subsequent use within the software devoted to the virtual elaboration of the shape (i.e. the sample rate must be the same during the acquisition of visual and numerical data ). C. The electronic reassembly of the shape must take into consideration all the different levels used in the coding, in order to have both a topographic and topological description of the object.

The research activity developed at the Scientific Visualization Laboratory of CINECA (Interuniversity Computing Center, Bologna, Italy), concerning the virtual navigation of archaeological landscapes, has produced important results in archaeological data visualization. We have implemented the application of virtual reality in the archaeological field relating to archaeological landscape exploration, archaeological site visualization, and ancient topography reconstruction. The virtual navigation is not full immersion but uses the 3D Crystal Eyes System, an ultrasound tracking system with six degrees of freedom. The system runs on an Indigo SG Extreme workstation. Some of the data was processed prior to visualization using GRASS GIS with a 3D viewer module

This article describes work and experience in the computer documentation of restoration work. The final aim of this project is to develop a new standardized methodology for manipulating data relating to the process of conservation and restoration. The authors are members of an ICCROM/ICR special research group on graphic documentation and a NORMAL Commission sub-group for graphic documentation of mural paintings. The concept of standards is paramount. Standardization, information transfer and communication are stressed, especially in the area of training. Indeed, this approach unifies the description of documentation of restoration treatments performed by professional restorers and trainees from the two partner institutions. In view of the escalating use of computers in the field of conservation, it seems that little has been done to evaluate their impact and appropriate fields of application: the new converts have photographed themselves sitting at the computer keyboard much as our forebears were depicted with a prize buck. The attempt here is to plan for practical use by suggesting a method and specific operating techniques. Our aim is to supply user-friendly procedures (which help run more complex applications) to those who, with good reason, are neither expert in graphics software nor interested in becoming so. The quality of a computer system is not measured by spectacular rainbow effects but by the quantity of information available, its quality and retrievability. The diverse operating environments are defined - the open system and the closed system - analogous to the restoration worksite and the laboratory for chemico-physical analyses. On the one hand is the restoration worksite, the open system, where data are obtained; on the other is the laboratory, or closed system, where one collects and studies the data. What, then, is represented, and how? What is the structure of the information in relation to the model of the information and the model of the object? How should the graphic material be imported into the computer? How can one navigate through the various types of information while protecting the specific nature of each type? Information on hardware is scarce; there is not enough on software; there is a great deal on abstruse theoretical implications. In essence, hardware should allow software to run - no more than that. The principal idea is that the organization of information is the value-added factor produced in the process of registering data in a computer. These notes also describe some attempts at personalizing menus (icons, hatching, etc.) in AutoCAD (and other related software) and multimedia experiments using ToolsBook on a cycle of mural paintings in the Roman Forum.

The use of a scanner in archaeological excavation is a powerful tool for electronic documentation. A precise method to take advantage of this new hardware peripheral has been documented. There are four essential components: a camera, a portable personal computer, one handy-scanner (at least) and good software for image processing (bitmap and vector). The main advantages offered by this collection are that one obtains high metric precision, quick recording times and wide flexibility in data manipulation. A very complex structure (a knapping floor) from the archaeological excavation of Riparo Tagliente (VR), dating to the Epigravettian (late Upper Palaeolithic), was used to conduct the test. Starting with a mosaic of photographic images, it was possible to obtain the morphology of the paleosurface in an electronic format. After the automatic electronic input it is then possible to modify the shapes and qualities (thickness, colour, position . . .) of single objects like flints, bones, stones and so on. It is also possible to enhance the images with the application of filters to optimise contrast, brightness or clarity, to zoom into particular areas or to magnify a single object, and to work on different layers. The output on paper may be the partial or total restitution of the final image, or the print of a single group of objects in different formats and scale drawings. However, the main advantage is that of obtaining documentation during the excavation and building a complete database of alphanumerical, statistical and distribution data and object images.

The authors, who have been working since 1987 in Sphakia (Sw Crete), present some practical thoughts about how to use computers to improve the production of archaeological maps for publication. The research project, carried out by a multidisciplinary team of researchers, has foreseen an intensive survey work in the eparchy and the subsequent production of period maps for the final publication and of maps to display details of sherd find spots and other transect data. The computerized recording processing and enhancing of these maps was undertaken using the program SuperPaint 3.0. On the basis of their practical experience, the authors show how computers can help in the topographic and cartographic analysis of information and offer greater flexibility in the final presentation of results.

The purpose of this paper is to describe algorithms for constructing and drawing Harris Matrix. These algorithms are incorporated into a system that reads stratigraphic unit cards, checks consistency of physical relationships, constructs and draws the matrix and allows inspection of information supplied for each unit by navigating on the matrix and pointing to the desired unit. The paper also contains a brief description of this system.

The creation of B.O.I.R.A. was brought about through the consideration of a problem that arises amongst every team of archaeological researchers. This problem is the great amount of information that is produced and gathered as a result of the work being carried on. In order that the information should be efficiently controlled and assimilated, the handling of the various data should be done by means of computer software tools. The aim of this report is not to call attention to the data that has been compiled from examples of recording systems of archaeological research published so far, but rather to make known to researchers a different methodology, such as that of Yourdon and the so-called Chen entity-relation design. This is done by using CASE tools in order to develop software systems which are made to measure and are of a high standard, which have been successfully proved in their implementation and use. By way of example, a system has been designed capable of handling data usually dealt with by an archaeological team.

The author presents the project NiKita (Navigation interactive - Kit pour l'archéologie), established with the aim of creating a tool for the interactive processing of archaeological bibliographical documentation. NiKita is a database of easy and intuitive utilisation, developed for Macintosh using the program Hypercard. The principal characteristics of this program are: availability of an “object oriented” programming language; possibility of organizing data in files or stacks, autonomous but correlated; capacity of processing eterogeneous data and different types of graphical formats; availability of a transparent and intuitive interface. The different stacks contemplate: graphical and textual documents related to sites, contexts and objects; Greek and Latin sources related to archaeological units considered; bibliographical references. At present, the file “Bibal” contains about 4500 titles.

Classification represents a central topic in archaeological research. In fact, archaeologists seem to spend a great deal of their time in describing and sorting materials, from surveys and excavations, in groups which should serve various ends. In the history of archaeological classification, briefly outlined in the first part of the paper, there has been an endless debate between the researchers following the traditional /qualitative/subjective approach and the proponente of a “new” (now forty years old) paradigm, founded on the formal/quantitative/objective idiom. With the benefit of hindsight, we now know that none of them is at all satisfactory. In fact the traditional approach, despite the empirical validity, has proven very difficult to be formalized; the quantitative approach on the other hand, though being based on sound scientific principles, has presented serious difficulties in its practical applications. The article describes an attempt to implement an informatic tool able to produce formal analyses based on both qualitative and quantitative variables: an intelligent ObjectOriented system with classificatory purposes. The system, called Mosaico, is thoroughly illustrated in the second part of the article. The description concerns all the components of Mosaico, a language for conceptual modelling called TQL++ (Type and Query Language), and a brief explanation of some terms useful for a better understanding of the matter. A working example on the Fibulae from the Quattro Fontanili cemetery concludes the paper.

The use of multimedia to study history and archaeology is the principle of the application created by a Parthenopean IT company, the Ceaprelda srl, with the collaboration of a group of archaeologists coordinated by the author. The fusion between specialist competence and technology has allowed us to create a unique multimedia product, that can claim of being the first on floppy disk with archaeological and artistic emphasis. On the computer video it is possible to navigate the real and exact itinerary through territories, archaeological places, towns of particular historical-artistical interest or in the halls of museums. In every page of text a series of “windows” can be opened showing with monographic index-cards, curiosities and historical information, accompanied by photographs. The software is able to simultaneously process a high amount of information (texts, photos, graphic elements and sound) in an interactive form using the Windows operating system. Through applying a generic level of global authoring, the same project model always appears according to the specific requirements dictated by the contents; to design the program structure the Hypermedia Design Model (HDM) was considered, though this model refers generally to a hypermedia context. The project model has therefore allowed for the creation of a multimedia product, that led to the production of two titles: “Campi Flegrei” and “Napoli Mirabilia”. The structure of the text is based on a series of “entities”, to be considered as wide thematical classifications (e.g. contexts, itineraries, cards), each one formed of “components”, connected to it by contents and pattern. The reading scheme, with textual (descriptive pages) and visual (photos present on each page) information, is structured on the series of applied “links” that consent the admission to the various entities: moreover through an infinite series of logical and detailed paths (web), transversal readings of contents can be obtained. It is also possible “to navigate” in the text with the help of topographic maps. Using the “Print” function the various itineraries can be transformed into a little guide-book, while the “Search” key allows for a specific word search in the text, for a faster and more refined consultation. The series of technological innovations has allowed us to “simulate” the conditions of real visits. Other itineraries have also been created in the same manner. In particular, these are for the Southern Etruria (A. Naso, with an introduction by M. Cristofani) and Paestum (E. Greco and I. D'Ambrosio). This particular method of management and research has been used for purely educational purposes, but the software can be adapted to become an instrument for scientific research.

Hypertext allows a personalisation of the information, with the possibility of creating multiple manuals with various levels of complexity. Therefore, Hypertext is an excellent didactic tool for education, and indeed schools frequently use hypertext to explain historical and artistical questions about Cultural Heritage.